Theories of Chemistry

Chemistry as it was realized substantially derives from the interae-tion of electrons. The electronic theory of chemistry, particularly of organic chemistry, emerged, explaining the great richness of chemical observations and transformation, as expressed by Ingold, Robinson, Hammett, and many others following in their footsteps. 

Phenolic resins were the first totally synthetic plastics invented. They were commercialized by 1910 [I]. Their history begins before the development of the structural theory of chemistry and even before Kekule had his famous dreams of snakes biting their tails. It commences with Gerhardt s 1853 observations of insoluble resin formation while dehydrating sodium salicylate [2]. These were followed by similar reports on the behavior of salicylic acid derivatives under a variety of reaction conditions by Schroder et al. (1869), Baeyer (1872), Velden (1877), Doebner (1896 and 1898), Speyer (1897) and Baekeland (1909-1912) [3-17]. Many of these early reports appear to involve the formation of phenolic polyesters rather than the phenol-aldehyde resins that we think of today. For... 

Molecular properties and reactions are controlled by electrons in the molecules. Electrons had been thonght to be particles. Quantum mechanics showed that electrons have properties not only as particles but also as waves. A chemical theory is required to think abont the wave properties of electrons in molecules. These properties are well represented by orbitals, which contain the amplitude and phase characteristics of waves. This volume is a result of our attempt to establish a theory of chemistry in terms of orbitals — A Chemical Orbital Theory. 

Boyle (1661) attempted to provide a more definite concept and attributed the sour taste of acids to sharp-edged acid particles. Lemery, another supporter of the corpuscular theory of chemistry, had similar views and considered that acid-base reactions were the result of the penetration of sharp acid particles into porous bases (Walden, 1929 Finston Rychtman, 1982). However, the first widely accepted theory was that of Lavoisier who in 1 111 pronounced that oxygen was the universal acidifying principle (Crosland, 1973 Walden, 1929 Day Selbin, 1969 Finston Rychtman, 1982). An acid was defined as a compound of oxygen with a non-metal. 

Recently, we were reading in the daily papers and in the scientific journals, about the transmutation of mercury into gold. With our present theories of chemistry, this appears to us to be not only a possibility, but even a probability. In this story Edgar Allan Poe once more appears in the role of scientific prophet—a role which he so often filled. What he describes in this story, written nearly a century ago, is just such a transmutation as the German chemist [presumably Miethe] claims to have done—namely, the transmutation of mercury into gold. (Poe 1849, 364)... 

The inconclusive quest for a fundamental theory of chemistry, consistent with quantum mechanics and relativity, has been described in the preceeding three chapters. To put the problem into perspective once more, the place of chemistry within the sciences needs to be restated. 

The sequence in which to introduce the range of topics presents a problem. To end up with a theory of chemistry based on relativity and quantum mechanics a minimum background in physical chemistry, mechanics and electromagnetism is essential, which in turn requires a knowledge of vectors, complex numbers and differential equations. The selection of material within the preliminary topics is strictly biased by later needs and presented in the usual style of the parent disciplines. Many readers may like to avoid some tedium by treating the introductory material only for reference, as and when required. 

Arrhenius S. Theories of Chemistry Being Lectures Delivered at the University of California, in Berkley, Slater T (ed.). London, England Longmans, Green and Co 1907, p. 48. 

Lothar Meyer, introduction to the 1864 edition of Modem Theories of Chemistry, 5th ed., trans. Phillips... 

For someone trained in the disciplines of chemistry, patent law can be a fascinating career. It is not necessary, of course, to be skilled in all phases of chemistry to be a successful chemical patent lawyer. Once one has learned the general theories of chemistry and the vocabulary, it is not difficult for inventors, scientists, or engineers to explain to him the... 

Responses to this further question appear to fall into two camps. One prominent metaphysician believes that the question needs to be approached independently of any theories of chemistry and of physics. Robin Le Poidevin has published an extensive article in which he argues in favor of the ontological reduction of chemistry to physics. He does this through what he has termed a combinatorial approach. 

Dewar The Molecular Orbital Theory of Chemistry, Ref. 9 Jaff6 Arc. Chem. Res. 1969, 2. 136-143 Kutzclnigg Del Re Bcrthier Fortschr. Chem. Forsch. 1971, 22. 1-222. 

Wbhler s discoveries had great influence on the theory of chemistry. Journals from 1820 to 1881 contained contributions from him. The sum of his work is absolutely overwhelming. 

A body possessing so many interesting properties as ammonia, standing as it were on the confines of mineral and of organic chemistry, and forming the connecting link between them, must even, on its own account, and still more from the remarkable variety of classes of combinations into which it enters, occupy a prominent place in the general theory of chemistry.—R. J. Kane. 

A programme to develop a theory of chemistry, not dictated by theoretical physics and free of unnecessary mathematical complications, is not supposed to be a paradigm in isolation. It should respect the discoveries of related disciplines, but not necessarily all of their interpretations. The implications of relativity and quantum theory are as important for the understanding of chemical phenomena as for physics, particularly in so far as these theories elucidate the structure of matter. This aspect is of vital importance to chemistry, but only a philosophical curiosity in physics. In the orthodox view of physics it is the outcome of experimental measurements which has theoretical significance - the chemist needs insight into the nature of elementary substances to understand and manipulate their systems of interest. With-... 

There are several reasons for this unsatisfactory state of affairs. Most important is perhars the different conceptual demands on theories of chemistry and physics respectively. In this instance there has been no effort to re-interpret mathematical quantum theory to satisfy the needs of chemistry. The physical, or Copenhagen, interpretation, which is essentially an ensemble theory, is simply not able to handle the individual elementary units needed to formulate a successful theory of chemical cohesion and interaction. Computational dexterity without some mechanistic basis does not constitute a theory. Equally unfortunate has been the dogmatic insistence of theoretical chemists to drag their outdated phenomenological notions into the formulation of a hybrid theory, neither classical nor quantum even to the point of discarding... 

The models of Bohr, Sommerfeld and de Broglie provide a firm basis for the further development of a quantum theory of chemistry by re-assessment of the more advanced theories of quantum physics. However, there is little support for such a pursuit, not if we find statements like the following [14], put out by one of the world s leading publishers of academic science ... 

What started out as an effort to understand chemical phenomena through quantum physics has resulted in a computational scheme, almost universally accepted as the ultimate theory of chemistry. Admittedly, computations are performed, depending on computer size, at different "levels of theory", but the thinking is left to the software. The main purpose of the exercise is... 

The most conspicuous failure of quantum physics, as a theory of chemistry, is the demonstrated inability to account in detail for the observed periodic order of the elements, the single most important feature of theoretical chemistry. The importance of this failure, if not completely ignored, is routinely underplayed in elementary chemistry texts, by statements such as [61] ... 

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