The first Microscope

In spite of the fact that his microscopes were not compound he obtained remarkable results with them. 

To adjust the lens to the object was so long and tedious a task that it is not surprising that Leeuwenhoek used an individual lens for each object. The magnification varied and at best did not exceed 

Leeuwenhoek was so interested in the things he observed that, like Hooke, he wrote minutely detailed reports about them to the Royal Society in London, beginning in 1674. He was later elected a fellow of the Royal Society. Some of his observations are at once quaint and epochmaking. For example, after examining material which he scraped from between his teeth, he said  

I therefore took some of this flour and mix it either with pure rain water wherein were no animals or else with some of my spittle (having no Air bubbles to cause a motion in it) and then to my great surprise perceived that the aforesaid matter contained very small living animals, which moved themselves very extravagantly. The 

Note that, unlike Hooke, Leeuwenhoek made many of his observations by light transmitted through the object and that the microorganisms were suspended in various fluids, not immobilized or otherwise altered by drying. 

---

In this section we consider electromagnetic dispersion forces between macroscopic objects. There are two approaches to this problem in the first, microscopic model, one assumes pairwise additivity of the dispersion attraction between molecules from Eq. VI-15. This is best for surfaces that are near one another. The macroscopic approach considers the objects as continuous media having a dielectric response to electromagnetic radiation that can be measured through spectroscopic evaluation of the material. In this analysis, the retardation of the electromagnetic response from surfaces that are not in close proximity can be addressed. A more detailed derivation of these expressions is given in references such as the treatise by Russel et al. [3] here we limit ourselves to a brief physical description of the phenomenon. 

Even though the basic idea of the Widom model is certainly very appealing, the fact that it ignores the possibihty that oil/water interfaces are not saturated with amphiphiles is a disadvantage in some respect. The influence of the amphiphiles on interfacial properties cannot be studied in principle in particular, the reduction of the interfacial tension cannot be calculated. In a sense, the Widom model is not only the first microscopic lattice model, but also the first random interface model configurations are described entirely by the conformations of their amphiphilic sheets. 

Figure 2.3 Antonj van Leeuwenhoek. A fanciful delineation based on a famous portrait. The picture shows accurately the size and shape of the first microscopes, the manner in which they were used, and the simple laboratory apparatus of the Father of Bacteriology."...

The first microscopical computation of a free energy curve for a chemical reaction in solution was performed by the Jorgensen s group [41,52,53] ten years ago. They studied the degenerate SN2 reaction of chloride anion with methyl chloride in gas phase, in aqueous solution and in dimethylformamide (DMF) ... 

Luder UH, Clayton MN (2004) Induction of phlorotannins in the brown macroalga Ecklonia radiata (Laminariales, Phaeophyta) in response to simulated herbivory - the first microscopic study. Planta 218 928-937... 

The first microscopic theory for ionic friction in polar solvents was proposed by Wolynes, " in which the ion—solvent interactions were partitioned into short-range repulsive and long-range attractive components. The friction coefficient in the Wolynes model is simplified into the following two terms ... 

Whereas the first microscopic theory of BaTiOs [1,2] was based on order-disorder behavior, later on BaTiOs was considered as a classical example of displacive soft-mode transitions [3,4] which can be described by anharmonic lattice dynamics [5] (Fig. 1). BaTiOs shows three transitions at around 408 K it undergoes a paraelectric to ferroelectric transition from the cubic Pm3m to the tetragonal P4mm structure at 278 K it becomes orthorhombic, C2mm and at 183 K a transition into the rhombohedral low-temperature Rm3 phase occurs. 

STM has matured enormously since the development of the first microscope 20 years ago, an achievement for which Binning and Rohrer were awarded the Nobel Prize in physics in 1986 39,41. STM has emerged as a powerful technique for exploring surfaces at the atomic scale. This ability makes the STM unique in comparison to other surface-sensitive analytical techniques, and the progress of... 

Evaluation of solvent-sensitive properties requires well-defined referena i ran eis. A macroscopic parameter, dielectric constant, does not always give interpretable correlations of data. The first microscopic measure of solvent polarity, the Y-value, based on the solvolysis rate of t-butyl chloride, is particularly valuable for correlating solvolysis rates. Y-values are tedious to measure, somewhat complicated in physical basis, and characterizable for a limited number of solvents. The Z-value, based on the charge-transfer electronic transition of l-ethyl-4-carbomethoxy-pyridinium iodide , is easy to measure and had a readily understandable physical origin. However, non-polar solvent Z-values are difficult to obtain b use of low salt solubility. The Et(30)-value , is based on an intramolecular charge-transfer transition in a pyridinium phenol b ne which dissolves in almost all solvents. We have used the Er(30)-value in the studies of ANS derivatives as the measure of solvent polarity. Solvent polarity is what is measured by a particular technique and may refer to different summations of molecular properties in different cases. For this reason, only simple reference processes should be used to derive solvent parameters. 

For this purpose, the first microscope-based single colour cross correlation FCS instrument was developed which still is in use 20 years after its start (Fig. 4.10). 

The first microscopic theory for the phenomenon of nuclear spin relaxation was presented by Bloembergen, Purcell and Pound (BPP) in 1948 [2]. They related the spin-lattice relaxation rate to the transition probabilities between the nuclear spin energy levels. The BPP paper constitutes the foundation on which most of the subsequent theory has been built, but contains some faults which were corrected by Solomon in 1955... 

The first microscopic theory of unimolecular reactions was developed by Hinshelwood [4], who used a rather simple molecular model. His assumptions were as follows ... 

Several limitations of this model show that it is not the main mechanism for dissolution inhibition in DNQ/novolac systems. First, the reaction does not occur with all inhibitors. Diazodiones such as Meldrum s Diazo do not undergo base-catalyzed azo-coupling, but they are effective inhibitors (77). Also, Murata et al (72) showed that efficient dissolution inhibition can be observed with inhibitors that do not have diazo functionality. For example, phenyl naphthyl sulfonate is a better dissolution inhibitor than the corresponding phenyl DNQ sulfonate indicating that the dissolution inhibition ability can be attributed to the sulfonate ester of the DNQ, not the DNQ chromophore itself (Figure 2). Despite the shortcomings of the Stonewall Model, it was an important contribution to the understanding of dissolution inhibition, because it was the first microscopic, molecular-interaction model for inhibition. 

If the binding sites A and B are identical, then it follows immediately that Aia = Aib and A2A = A2b- We define this quantity as the first microscopic binding constant = Aim with Aim - Aia = Aib- Likewise, it follows that the second microscopic binding constant can be defined as = A2m with A2m = KiA = A2B- It is not possible to measure these microscopic binding constants directly but it is easy to link them to the macroscopic stepwise binding constants Ai and A2 using (52) and (53) to obtain (54) and (55). 

Credit for the first microscope is usually given to Zacharias Janssen aroimd the year 1595. Because Zacharias was very young at that time, it is possible that his father, Hans, made the first one, but young Zach took over the introduction of these seemingly magic observation tools. 

The use of chemical disinfection began during the era of the Persian expansion, when water was stored in silver or copper vessels in order to keep it potable, van Leeuwenhook constructed the first microscope and discovered tiny organisms. 

For the applications critical to the theme of this book, Phil Brierley was the next key person, because he put me in touch with John Refiner in 1993 at the ICOFTS meeting in Calgary. John at the time was working on IR microscopes, which need exactly the IRSR source. Quickly, working with Larry Carr and Paul Dumas, the first microscope was loaned to the NSLS and installed in September 1993 using a sewer pipe to eliminate water vapor. 

The first microscopic process, the formation of primary radicals by the decomposition of initiator governs the rate of initiation and starts the growth of the macromolecule. The rate of initiation is known to be a function of the initiator efficiency (f), the initiator decomposition constant (k ) and the initiator concentration ([I]) and can be expressed by the following equation... 

In addition to pioneering the developments in FPA detectors designed specifically for fast mid-infrared hyperspectral imaging, Digilab redesigned their microscope to launch the first microscope designed specifically to cater for the unique requirements of FPA-based imaging. Such improvements included a wider and... 

While there are tremendous computational difficulties in studying the dynamics of dense melts of polymers and crosslinked networks, computer simulations have already played an important role in this field of research and will continue to do so in the future. Here we will review some of the successes of simulations in this area and discuss the outlook for the next few years. In fact, it can be argued, that the first microscopic demonstration that a new characteristic time and length scale is present in a melt of linear chains was from a computer simulation. While simulations do not... 

Here the focus of the interest is on the second term and what role the conservation of the network topology plays. All theories consider this only for Ns > Ne. While there have been many approaches, the most prominent and to our knowledge the first microscopic ansatz is the Edwards tube model. Within this model, for long chains the modulus is given by ... 

The crossover between these two extremes of behavior is found to be quite extensive. These results involve many approximations, which are not always well controlled, but they represent one of the first microscopic approaches to dynamics in semi-dilute solutions and they seem to confirm the more phenomenological tube model. It should also be noticed that the confinement of the chain in what would be the tube is not due to topological entanglements, as in Edwards approach, but rather to the excluded volume interactions with the other chains. The relative role of these two effects has not yet been studied. 

---