The Age of Discovery

The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries saw an explosion in world exploration. It had been preceeded by the Italian Colombus s voyages 

Date Provenance Alchemist or related profession Major work 

370-460 Greece Democritus Formulated early atomic theory 

1235-1311 Spain Arnald of Villanova A Treatise on the Preservation of Youth 

1330-1417 France Nicolas Flamel Work on Transmutary Alchemy 

The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries saw an explosion in world exploration. It had been preceded by the Italian Columbus s voyages to the Americas with John Cabot, the Englishman, close on his heels. Verrazzano searched for a Northern Strait (1524-1528), while Cartier too plied the coast of North America (1534-1536) in search of riches. 

Queen Elizabeth s master mariners, Gilbert, Frobisher, Drake and Raleigh trawled the seas in search of treasure for her coffers, while Magellan and da Gama probed the southern seas. 

All this marine activity brought back many new aroma products to the tables and laboratories of Europe or increased the supplies of existing ones. And at the other end of the voyage the alchemists were waiting to add to their store of knowledge. 

Court alchemists included Giordano Bruno (Henry III of France 1551-1589), Arthur Dee (Elizabeth I, Charles I) and Joseph Duchesne (Henry IV of France 1553-1610). 

Bruno was an early atomist, writing on The Principles, elements and causes of things (1590), while Andreas Libavius (1597) developed the study of alchemy in two directions encheiria, the manipulation of materials, and chymia, the preparation and classification of chemicals. Biringuccio (1540, Pirotechnia) wrote of fireworks, Agricola (1556, De re metallica) of metals, Neri (1612, L Arte Vetraria) of glass 

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With C1, the roster of potential noble-gas-producing radionuclides is probably exhausted. However, with the exception of C1, studies of radiogenic noble gases have moved from the age of discovery and confirmation to the age of detailed investigation of what they have to say about solar system history. 

From about the first century A. D. ro the Age of Discovery (fifteenrh—seventeenth century A.D.), soybeans were introduced into many Asian countries with land races eventually developing in Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, North India,... 

The dissemination of the soybean out from its heardand to other countries was a slow process and initially locaUzed to Chinas neighbors. The soybean and/or soy products moved rapidly from China to Europe during the Age of Discovery. The association of the soybean growing in the field with its main traditional products such as tofu, soy sauce, and miso was a mystery to the West. However, Kaempfer s book, published in 1712, provided the recipes to make traditional products from soybeans. 

The age of discovery of chemical elements began only in the second part of the 18th century. Preceding milleiiia had... 

Huerta, Robert D. Giants of Delft, Johannes Vermeer and the Natural Philosophers The Parallel Search for Knowledge During the Age of Discovery. Lewisburg, Pa. Bucknell University Press, 2003. 

Though Europeans conceptions of themselves evolved in the wake of the Age of Discovery, they continually believed that their imperative was to colonize the world, because colonization was the means of imposing their beliefs and systems. Colonial occupation, writes the postcolonial theorist Achile Mbembe,... 

In 1903, the Curies received the Nobel Prize in physics (with Becquerel) for the discovery of radioactivity. Three years later, Pierre Curie died at the age of 46, the victim of a tragic accident. Fie stepped from behind a carriage in a busy Paris street and was run down by a horse-driven truck. That same year, Marie became the first woman instructor at the Sorbonne. In 1911, she won the Nobel Prize in chemistry for the discovery of radium and polonium, thereby becoming the first person to win two Nobel Prizes. 

Possibly the most significant discovery in the metabolism of aromatic azo compounds had implications that heralded the age of modem chemotherapy. It was shown that the bactericidal effect of the azo dye Prontosil in vivo was in fact due to the action of its transformation product, sulfanilamide, which is an antagonist of 4-aminobenzoate that is required for the synthesis of the vitamin folic acid. Indeed, this reduction is the typical reaction involved in the first stage of the biodegradation of aromatic azo compounds. 

As the chemical industry expanded, Perkin continued his own scientific research in the peace of his private laboratory. He had not lost his touch. Among the synthetic methods he discovered is one now called the Perkin reaction. He used it to make a synthetic substitute for a vegetable substance called coumarin, which has a pleasant, vanillalike odor. Coumarin spawned the synthetic perfume business and made luxurious scents available to all. Once again, a Perkin chemical started a new industry, albeit a modest one in comparison with dyes and pharmaceuticals. Despite the worldwide impact of Perkins discoveries, he was not knighted by the British monarchy until 1906, the fiftieth anniversary of his discovery of mauve. The world chemistry community feted him lavishly that year, and he traveled to the United States collecting further honors. A year later, at the age of 69, he died peacefully, at home. 

Nuclear dating has been most helpful in establishing the history of the earth and of the moon and of the meteorites. The fact is, there is no other way of measuring their ages. Prior to the discovery of natural radioactivity in the late 19th century, indirect methods were used to estimate the age of the earth, but there were no real answers until the radioactivity of thorium, uranium, and potassium were discovered and we began to understand atomic structure and to realize that nuclear transformation was essentially independent of the chemical form. 

Alfhough we are in transition from the age of S5mfhefic chemisfry fo the age of biofech-nology and gene manipulation, S5mthetic discovery will still play a major role in advancing the therapeutic armamentarium. 

The age of pressure swing adsorption (PSA) began so far as air separation is concerned in the late 1950s. The first process patent was that of Skarstrom [12]. The scientists and engineers of the Linde Laboratories were very active in this field. It is worth mentioning that the discovery of synthetic zeolite molecular sieves was... 

The exact history of the discovery of iron is unclear. There is a reference in the Old Testament mythology of Genesis that refers to a descendant of Adam as an iron instructor of every artificer in brass and iron. Archeological artifacts made from smelted iron are known from about 3000 bce. Iron seems to have been introduced as the last stage in the age of met-... 

The first sections of this reference book set the stage for the presentation of the elements. First is the section How to Use This Book followed by a short introduction. Next is A Short History of Chemistry, the narrative of which progresses from prehistoric times to the Age of Alchemy and then to the Age of Modern Chemistry. Next is the section titled Atomic Structure, which traces the history of our knowledge of the structure of the atom some theoretical models, including quantum mechanics the discovery of subatomic (nuclear) particles... 

Scheele worked obsessively in his laboratory, making one discovery after another and his discoveries attracted attention. He was elected to the Swedish Academy of Sciences at the age of 32, and he later received offers of professorships from many important universities. However, Scheele preferred to remain a provincial apothecary working undisturbed in his laboratory. 

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