Surface water surveys

Even rain is not pure water. Reports from the U.S. Geological Survey show that it contains 2.3—4.6 ppm of soflds, or a yearly precipitation of 2.5—5 t/km. Recently (ca 1997), work conducted ia the United States and Europe has underscored the rather dangerous results of iacreased use of fossil fuels, where the SO and NO emissions that end up ia the rain lower its pH from 5.6 (slightly acidic) for uncontaminated rain, to acid rains. Such acid rain has serious effects on surface waters (1). About 40 x 10 t of SO and 25 x 10 t of NO were emitted ia the United States ia 1980. There are, however, encouragiag trends the 1970 Clean Air Act has led to a gradual reduction ia these emissions, bringing the SO emissions down from the previous levels cited by 10% by 1990, and the NO emissions down by 6%, with a consequent slight decrease ia rain acidity. A part of the Clean Air Act is also iatended to cap SO emissions from major poiat sources at 13.5 x 10 t (2). Between 1994 and 1995, total SO emissions ia the U.S. decreased remarkably by 13% and total NO emissions by 8%. 

MAFF/SOAFD Pesticide Usage Survey Group, Arable Farm Crops in Great Britain 1994, 1995. Water Research Council, Atmospheric Sources of PoUntion. Inputs of Trace Organics to Surface Waters, R D Report No. 20, Water Research Council, 1995. 

Table II summarizes analytical data for dissolved inorganic matter in a number of natural water sources (J3, 9, J 9, 20, 21). Because of the interaction of rainwater with soil and surface minerals, waters in lakes, rivers and shallow wells (<50m) are quite different and vary considerably from one location to another. Nevertheless, the table gives a useful picture of how the composition of natural water changes in the sequence rain ->- surface water deep bedrock water in a granitic environment. Changes with depth may be considerable as illustrated by the Stripa mine studies (22) and other recent surveys (23). Typical changes are an increase in pH and decrease in total carbonate (coupled), a decrease in 02 and Eh (coupled), and an increase in dissolved inorganic constituents. The total salt concentration can vary by a factor of 10-100 with depth in the same borehole as a consequence of the presence of strata with relict sea water. Pockets with such water seem to be common in Scandinavian granite at >100 m depth.

Several studies have been conducted to measure methyl parathion in streams, rivers, and lakes. A U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) of western streams detected methyl parathion in five river samples taken from four states during a 14-month period in 1970 and 1971. The amount of methyl parathion detected ranged from 0.04 to 0.23 pg/L (Schultz et al. 1973). A later and more extensive USGS study analyzed water samples from major rivers of the United States four times yearly in the period of 1975-1985. Of the 2,861 water samples, 0.1% had detectable levels of methyl parathion (Gilliom et al. 1985). In a study of Arkansas surface waters, samples of lake and river/stream water were collected and analyzed over a three-year period (Senseman et al. 1997). Of the 485 samples collected, methyl parathion was found in one river/stream sample at a maximum concentration of 3.5 pg/L. Results from an EPA study in California detected methyl parathion in 3 of 18 surface drain effluent samples at concentrations of 10-190 ng/kg. Subsurface drain effluent water had concentrations of 10-170 ng/kg in 8 of 60 samples (lARC 1983). 

Cluster sites should be established for synoptic surface water surveys. This approach is discussed in detail in Chapter 3. 

US Department of the Interior, Pesticides in Surface Waters, Current Understanding of Distribution and Major Influences. Eact Sheet 039-97. US Geological Survey, Washington, DC (1997). 

USGS. 1998. Surface water and groundwater monitoring programs. United States Geological Survey. Rocky Mountain Arsenal, Annual Data Summary, 1997 Water Year. Final Report. 

Ideally, lakes and streams have a pH between 6 and 8. However, according to the National Surface Water Survey (NSWS) conducted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency between 1984 and 1986, the most acidic lake in the country, Little Echo Pond in Franklin, New York, had a pH of 4.2. According to the same survey, the Pine Barrens region of New Jersey also has a very high percentage of acidic rivers. More than 90% of the streams in that area are considered acidic. This is very bad news for the fish that live in these lakes and streams. 

Acrylonitrile is not a common contaminant of typical surface water or groundwater. In a state- wide survey of over 1,700 wells in Wisconsin, acrylonitrile was not detected in any sample (Krill and Sonzogni 1986). Acrylonitrile was detected in 46 of 914 samples of surface water and groundwater taken across the United States (Staples et al. 1985), generally at levels less than 10 ppb. 

Lamar WL, Goerlitz DF (1966) Organic acids in naturally colored surface waters. Water supply paper no. 1817-A 1-17. Geological Survey... 

Hites 1978, 1979). The annual mean concentration of phenol in water from the lower Mississippi River was 1.5 ppb (EPA 1980). River water in an unspecified location in the United States was reported to contain 10-100 ppb of phenol (Jungclaus et al. 1978). Phenol was detected, but not quantified, in a Niagara River watershed (Elder et al. 1981) and in 2 of 110 raw water samples analyzed during the National Organic Monitoring Survey (EPA 1980). In the STORET database, 7% of 2,181 data points for U.S. surface waters were positive for the presence of phenol the mean and range of the reported concentrations were 533 ppb and 0.002-46,700 ppb, respectively (EPA 1988c). 

Surface Water. Endosulfan sulfate was identified as a metabolite in a survey of 11 agricultural watersheds located in southern Ontario, Canada (Frank et al, 1982). When endosulfan (a- and p-isomers, 10 pg/L) was added to Little Miami River water, sealed, and exposed to sunlight and UV... 

The US EPA set a drinking water limit of 0.2 parts per billion (ppb) of lindane. Industrial dumping sites such as the one in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania contain an estimated 400 tons of lindane waste and other waste dumped over a 50-year period on 30 acres of land. The runoffs from this site as well as others have the potential to contaminate drinking water with lindane. Lindane is regularly detected in surface water in the United States (see US Geological Survey monitoring studies). 

Di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate has been detected infrequently in fresh water, generally at < 1 pg/L (Sheldon Hites, 1979 lARC, 1982 Felder etal, 1986 WHO, 1996). Di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate is relatively insoluble in water and is likely to partition to sediment and biota in the aquatic environment. A survey of 23 natural surface water sites in 12 states showed that 7% of 82 samples contained di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate at levels ranging from 0.25 to 1.0 pg/Lwith an average of 0.46 pg/L(Felder eta/., 1986). 

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