Structural theory of matter

Atomic stability and periodicity remain major issues in the structural theories of matter fortunately, they both have been largely solved by wave-particle (W/P) complementarily quantum behavior phenomenologically, such relationship can be expressed as WAVE PARTICLE = constant, while it may be quantized (by Planck s constant h) in the light of Heisenberg principle as (Putz, 2010, 2012)... 

In the mid-nineteenth century three individuals, working independently, laid the conceptual foundations for the structural theory of matter. August Kekuld, Archibald Scott Couper, and Alexander M. Butlerov each suggested that substances are defined by a specific arrangement of atoms. As an example, consider the structures of ammonium cyanate and urea from Wohler s experiment ... 

By the 1920s, vitalism had been discarded. Chemists were aware of constitutional isomerism and had developed the structural theory of matter. The electron had been discovered and identified as the source of bonding, and Lewis structures were used to keep track of shared and unshared electrons. But the understanding of electrons was about to change dramatically. 

In 1866, August Kekul used his recently published structural theory of matter to propose a structure for benzene. Specifically, he proposed a ring comprised of alternating double and single bonds. 

What Are the Key Ideas Matter is composed of atoms. The structures of atoms can be understood in terms of the theory of matter known as quantum mechanics, in which the properties of particles and waves merge together. 

Philosophical" or theoretical chemistry was wide-ranging during most of the nineteenth century. In contrast, late-nineteenth-century physical chemists and twentieth-century physicists tended to narrow the definition of theoretical chemistry, eliminating organic structure theory and making theoretical chemistry almost exclusively physical and mathematical. An early indicator of this trend is Noyes s deletion of structure theory from the course in theoretical chemistry at MIT. A later indicator is the special issue of Chemical Reviews in 1991 which carries the title, "Theoretical Chemistry," and begins with an introductory editorial entitled simply "Quantum Theory of Matter." 5... 

Almost all chemical properties can be explained in terms of the properties of atoms, so this material is central to developing an understanding of chemistry. The topics we cover here account for the structure of the periodic table, the great organizing principle of chemistry, and provide a basis for understanding how elements combine to form compounds. The material is also important because it introduces the theory of matter known as quantum mechanics, which is essential for understanding how electrons behave. 

The Kinetic Molecular Theory of matter attempts to describe all the states of matter and the conversion between the states by considering the structures of molecules comprising matter and how those molecules interact. There are three commonly encountered states of matter solids, liquids, and gases. There are a few other states of matter, such as plasmas, but these are encountered only under extremely high energy conditions. Therefore, we will restrict our conversation to the more mundane states. 

In his preface Gibbs describes the purpose of his treatise somewhat as follows The statistico-mechanical concepts and methods have so far been developed not as an independent system but only as an aid for the kinetic theory of matter. In this manner of developing the theory grave difficulties arose from the attempt to establish hypotheses about the structure of the gas models in such a way that they would account, if possible, for all experimental results. 

There are general relationships of transport phenomena based on phenomenological theory, i.e., on the correlations between macroscopically measurable quantities. The molecular theories explain the mechanism of transport processes taking into account the molecular structure of the given medium, applying the kinetic-statistical theory of matter. The hydrodynamic theories are also applied especially to describe - convection. 

John Dalton was a British teacher and self-taught scientist. In 1809, he described atoms as solid, indestructible particles that make up all matter. (See Figure 2.1.) Dalton s concept of the atom is one of several ideas in his atomic theory of matter, which is outlined on the next page. Keep in mind that scientists have modified several of Dalton s ideas, based on later discoveries. You will learn about these modifications at the end of this section. See if you can infer what some of them are as you study the structure of the atom on the next few pages. 

As to the content of Volume 20, the Editors would like to thank the authors for their contributions, which give an interesting picture of part of the current state of art of the quantum theory of matter from computational methods of optimizing the electronic energy and molecular conformations, over coupled-cluster expansion methods for the study of the open-shell correlation problem and the calculation of lifetimes of metastable states by means of the method of complex scaling, to a survey of the current state of surface structural chemistry. 

In theory, the previous advantages could make miniaturization a panacea in practice, however, they do not. Thus, when a system is scaled down, some characteristics such as lengths, areas and volume ratios can differ so markedly from those of macroscopic systems as to affect the development of the process concerned. The new behaviour will be dominated by material confinement in small structures, a large interfacial volume fraction and various unique properties, phenomena and processes. In fact, many current theories of matter at the microscale level have critical gaps for nanometer dimensions and fail to describe the new phenomena observed at the nanoscale level accurately [66]. Also, scaling-down can be problematic with samples containing low analyte concentrations as their determination will require larger amounts of sample. 

The power of thermodynamics lies in its generality It rests on no particnlar model of the structure of matter. In fact, if the entire atomic theory of matter were to be found invalid and discarded (a very unlikely event ), the foundations of thermodynamics would remain nnshaken. Nonetheless, thermodynamics has some important limitations. Thermodynamics asserts that snbstances have specific mea-snrable macroscopic properties, but it cannot explain why a particular substance has particular numerical values for these properties. Thermodynamics can determine whether a process is possible, but it cannot say how rapidly the process will occur. For example, thermodynamics predicts that diamond is an unstable substance at atmospheric pressure and will eventually become graphite, but cannot predict how long this process will take. 

Progress in the physics of disordered media—that is, in the physics of media with a random distribution of microheterogeneity—is mainly made via the solution of problems involving the connection between the microscopic structure and the macroscopic behavior. This problem properly belongs to the realm of the kinetic theory of matter and is analogous to the problem of locking in the theory of fluids, hydrodynamic turbulence, the theory of phase transitions, and so on. 

One of the interesting things about thermodynamics is that although it deals with matter, it makes no assumptions about the microscopic nature of that matter. Thermodynamics deals with matter in a macroscopic sense it would be valid even if the atomic theory of matter were wrong. This is an important quality, because it means that reasoning based on thermodynamics is unlikely to require alteration as new facts about atomic structure and atomic interactions come to light. 

Kant scholars disagree about where exactly the gap should be located (whether it is a methodological gap or more serious), but there is no doubt that the term gap is appropriate to indicate the seriousness of what is missing in Kant s system hitherto (apart from the fact that Kant repeatedly uses the term himself). Edwards (2000, 152f), who stresses continuity in Kant s philosophy, also uses it (Kant s) transitional science is supposed to fill in a gap in the structure of the Kantian metaphysics of nature (and thus fill out the architectural plan of Kant s transcendental philosophy). The actual passage from metaphysical principles to the empirical part of physics is supposed to take place by means of the systematic formulation of a dynamical theory of matter. This theory of matter is founded on the concept of a cosmic aether. ... 

The particulate nature of matter is fundamental to almost every topic in chemistry. It involves the particle theory (often now called the kinetic molecular theory), which is the basis of explanations of atomic structure, bonding, molecules, much of solution chemistry and chemical reactions, equilibrium and chemical energetics. Because bonding (which involves atomic structure) and chemical reactions are covered in other chapters in this book, this chapter restricts itself to the particle theory of matter. Where useful, interesting aspects outside the particle theory are mentioned but the focus is fixed on the notion that all matter is composed of discrete, energetic particles that are separated by space. 

This represents only a fragment of the storylike structure of science (cf. p. 67), one of its most intriguing features. It makes science work otherwise, when considering the genetics of peas in biology, we would have to struggle with the quark theory of matter. 

THE ATOMIC THEORY OF MATTER THE DISCOVERY OF ATOMIC STRUCTURE (SECTIONS 2.1 AND 2.2) Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter. They are the smallest units of an element that can combine with other elements. Atoms are composed of even smaller particles, called subatomic particles. Some of these subatomic particles are charged and foUow the usual behavior of charged particles Particles with the same charge repel one another, whereas particles with unlike charges are attracted to one another. 

The Atomic Theory of Matter and the Discovery of Atomic Structure (Sections 2.1 and 2.2)... 

The important point that Lewis revealed is that though the acid-base properties of species are obviously modified by the presence or absence of a given solvent, their ultimate cause should reside in the molecular structure of the acid or base itself, and in light of the electronic theory of matter, not in a common constituent such as or OH, but in an analogous... 

Stlliman Lectures, 1903 Phil. Mag., 1904, vii, 237 1906, xi, 769 Electricity and Matter, 1904 The Corpuscular Theory of Matter, 1907 Rays of Positive Electricity, 1913, 2 ed. 1921 The Atomic Theory. The Romanes Lecture, Oxford, 1914 The Electron in Chemistry (Franklin Institute Lectures), 1923 see Hardin, Science, 1916, xliv, 655 (hist, of atomic structure). 

The atomic theory of matter infers that we can understand the world around us in terms of its smallest chemical components, atoms, whose structure of a massive, positively charged nucleus surrounded by lighter, fast moving electrons is widely taught. Several details of this model are important in building our knowledge of chemistry—... 

In the quantum theory of matter the study of the physical properties of any system, an atom, a molecule, or a solid, begins with the determination of the energy levels and the wave functions of the many electrons in the system. For this reason the theoretical and experimental investigations of the electronic structure of rare-earth metals have always occupied an important position in rare earth research. The pioneering calculations of the energy band structure of rare earth metals were motivated by the attempt to understand the complicated magnetic structures of these metals as revealed by neutron scattering. These... 

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