Standardized tools/techniques

LEED is the most powerfiil, most widely used, and most developed technique for the investigation of periodic surface structures. It is a standard tool in the surface analysis of single-crystal surfaces. It is used very commonly as a method to check surface order. The evolution of the technique is toward greater use to investigate surface disorder. Progress in atomic-structure determination is focused on improving calculations for complex molecular surface structures. 

Since then, TXRE has become the standard tool for surface and subsurface microanalysis [4.7-4.11]. In 1983 Becker reported the angular dependence of X-ray fluorescence intensities in the range of total reflection [4.12]. Recent demands have set the pace of further development in the field of TXRE - improved detection limits [4.13] in combination with subtle surface preparation techniques [4.14, 4.15], analyte concentrations extended even to ultratraces (pg) of light elements, e. g. A1 [4.16], spe-dation of different chemical states [4.17], and novel optical arrangements [4.18] and X-ray sources [4.19, 4.20]. 

In summary, the Gibbs ensemble MC methodology provides a direct and efficient route to the phase coexistence properties of fluids, for calculations of moderate accuracy. The method has become a standard tool for the simulation community, as evidenced by the large number of applications using the method. Histogram reweighting techniques (Chap. 3) have the potential for higher accuracy, especially if... 

Raman scattering are generally different so information from Raman experiments in general supplements information that is obtainable from infrared absorption. Using lasers as light sources can greatly reduce experimental difficulties in this technique. At present it has become one of the standard tools for polymer analysis. 

The desirability of using a non-invasive in-situ probe has already been discussed. There is, however, a problem, in that standard characterisation techniques are unable to penetrate bulky reaction vessels. As a result of this, little is known about the reaction dynamics or kinetics of intercalation reactions. A non-invasive probe which can interrogate a typical intercalation process is required. It is also necessary to employ short data collection times in order that kinetic information may be obtained. X-ray powder diffraction is a highly appropriate tool. It is non-invasive, and is a powerful characterisation technique when used in combination with ex-situ analyses. 

Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) is a standard laboratory technique. TEM is indispensable tool for high resolution observation of very fine structures on material smface. The resolution of TEM is abou one order of magnitude better than that of SEM. It corresponds to 1 nm. There exist also high resolution transmission microscopes (HRTEM) with a resolution down to 0.1 nm, capable to resolve individual atomic lattice planes. Samples must be stable enough to withstand the electron beam impact during their examination. This can be a problem for polymers. 

T/F approved and enforced (you really meant it) (The focus of this category is the actual maintenance tools, techniques, and standards for work that go beyond the traditional scope of normal inspection and preventive maintenance activities.)... 

However, since failures may involve a large number of parameters, often not independent from each other, the univariate techniques may be not so efficient therefore, they have been replaced by multivariate techniques, which are powerful tools able to compress data and reduce the problem dimensionality while retaining the essential information. In detail, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) [12, 47] is a standard multivariate technique, whose main goal is to transform a number of... 

We have used this technique to determine the qualitative features of several multi-reaction systems and the results will be reported elsewhere [1,2]. It is expected that this method will become the standard tool for predicting the qualitative multiplicity features of these systems. 

The use of multichannel analysis for the recognition and identification of individual peaks in a chromatogram is a very rapidly developing area and it may be anticipated that complex mathematical techniques (such as PCA) will soon become available as a standard tool for the chromatographer. 

NMR is a ubiquitous and indispensable tool for elucidating molecular structures, determining impurities, and studying molecular dynamics. NMR is also used to analyze simple mixtures without physical separation, and to measure molecular properties and bulk properties of the medium. The nondestructive nature of NMR permits the sample to be used for further investigation. As a noninvasive technique, NMR is often used to study molecular binding and to screen potential drug candidates. Therefore, despite its low sensitivity, NMR has become an essential analytical tool in academic and industrial environments. However, the inherent insensitivity causes detection limits of NMR to be a few orders below that of other standard analytical techniques [14], At present, the limit of detection achieved by NMR in concentration terms is in the millimolar range. 

All clean-facility construction, while employing standard construction techniques, should be accomplished in a manner that does not create excessive particulate contamination. A temporary lay-down area within the building adjacent to the clean area should be set aside for storage of clean construction components. All tools used for clean construction should be in an as-new condition and be cleaned and inspected prior to use. The pass-fail criteria for tool and material inspection is no visible dirt. ... 

Low angle X-ray scattering is an experimentally demanding technique and it is certainly not one of standard tools of the biochemical, or even biophysical laboratory. 

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