Serious injury

If possible comparisons are focused on energy systems, nuclear power safety is also estimated to be superior to all electricity generation methods except for natural gas (30). Figure 3 is a plot of that comparison in terms of estimated total deaths to workers and the pubHc and includes deaths associated with secondary processes in the entire fuel cycle. The poorer safety record of the alternatives to nuclear power can be attributed to fataUties in transportation, where comparatively enormous amounts of fossil fuel transport are involved. Continuous or daily refueling of fossil fuel plants is required as compared to refueling a nuclear plant from a few tmckloads only once over a period of one to two years. This disadvantage appHes to solar and wind as well because of the necessary assumption that their backup power in periods of no or Httie wind or sun is from fossil-fuel generation. Now death or serious injury has resulted from radiation exposure from commercial nuclear power plants in the United States (31). 

Eye Irritation. Exposure of the eye to undiluted alkan olamines can cause serious injury. Solutions as dilute as 1% of monoethan olamine and monoisopropan olamine can cause some eye irritation. 

Skin Irritation. Monoethan olamine and monoisopropan olamine, being strongly alkaline, are skin irritants, capable of producing serious injury in concentrations of 10% or higher upon repeated or prolonged contact. Occasional short contact, assurning the material is thoroughly washed off, should have httle adverse effect. 

In the past, chloroform was used extensively as a surgical anesthetic, but this use was abandoned because exposure to narcotic concentrations often resulted in sudden death from effects on the heart and circulation or from severe injury to the Hver. In addition, chloroform for this and other consumer uses was harmed by FDA in 1976 with the discovery that it is carcinogenic in mice (38). When splashed into the eye, chloroform causes local pain and irritation, but serious injury is not expected. Skin contact for single, brief exposures ordinarily causes Htde or no local irritation. 

Repeated exposure of skin to Hquid tetrachloroethylene may defat the skin causing dermatitis. When frequent or prolonged contact is likely, gloves of Viton, nitrile mbber, or neoprene should be used, discarding them when they begin to deteriorate. Tetrachloroethylene can cause significant discomfort if splashed in the eyes. Although no serious injury results, it can cause transient, reversible corneal injury. If contact with skin or eyes occurs, foUow standard first-aid practices. 

Ingestion of small amounts of tetrachloroethylene is not likely to cause permanent injury however, ingestion of large amounts may result in serious injury or even death. AH containers should be properly labeled. If solvent is swaHowed, consult a physician immediately. Do not induce vomiting. If solvent is aspirated it is rapidly absorbed through the lungs and may cause systemic effects and chemical pneumonia. 

Another way to evaluate risks is to calculate the sensitivity of the total risk estimates to changes in assumptions, frequencies, or consequences. Risk analysts tend to be conservative in their assumptions and calculations, and the cumulative effect of this conservatism may be a substantial overestimation of risk. For example, always assuming that short-term exposure to chemical concentrations above some threshold limit value will cause serious injury may severely skew the calculated risks of health effects. If you do not understand the sensitivity of the risk results to this conservative assumption, you may misallocate your loss prevention resources or misinform your company or the public about the actual risk. 

The tube bundle was being withdrawn from a horizontal shell and tube heat exchanger. It was pulled out a few inches and then became stuck. The mechanics decided that the cause was sludge, and to soften it they reconnected the steam supply to the shell. The tube bundle was blown out with some force, causing serious injuries [9]. 

A third incident occurred at a U.S. government facility. An employee connected his air mask onto a nitrogen line and immediately blacked out, fell, and hit his head. Fortunately, a stand-by man came to his assistance, and he recovered without serious injury. The compressed air and nitrogen lines used the same couplings, and the nitrogen lines, which should have been a distinctive color, had not been painted [22]. 

Many of the incidents did not actually result in death, serious injury, or serious damage—they were near-misses. But they could have had much more serious consequences. We should learn from these near-misses, as well as from incidents that had serious results. 

Fragments flying in all directions caused the deaths of four persons. Within an area of 150 m (500 ft) around the tank yard, many people were injured. Among them were fifteen who suffered from serious injury by freezing and the impact of fragments. 

Tlie remainder of tliis cliapter provides information on relative physical properties of materials (flash points, upper and lower explosive limits, tlireshold limit values, etc.) and metliods to calculate tlie conditions tliat approach or are conducive to liazardous levels. Fire liazards in industrial plants are covered in Sections 7.2 and 7.3, and Sections 7.4 and 7.5 focus on accidental explosions. Sections 7.6 and 7.7 address toxic emissions and liazardous spills respectively. tliese latter types of accident frequently result in fires and explosions tliey can cause deatlis, serious injuries and financial losses. 

Al Ihc lower levels, where time is required to cause serious injury to people, tliere is often the possibility to escape or take shelter. 

Tlie chemical is expected to move into tlie surrounding environment concentrations sufficient to cause serious injuries and/or deatlis upon exposure. Large numbers of people are expected to be affected. 

Gases or vapors that in concentrations of about Vj -1% for durations of exposure of about 5 min are lethal or produce serious injury. Sulfur dioxide... 

Fabricators/manufacturers do not plan for their products to fail or to cause harm to people. But if an incident should occur that results in serious injury or death, the problem must be investigated immediately to prevent... 

All adverse events that cause or have the potential to cause death or serious injury must be reported to the Competent Authorities of the Member States where the investigations are being conducted. 

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