Scale achievement

We assume that the unbinding reaction takes place on a time scale long ( ompared to the relaxation times of all other degrees of freedom of the system, so that the friction coefficient can be considered independent of time. This condition is difficult to satisfy on the time scales achievable in MD simulations. It is, however, the most favorable case for the reconstruction of energy landscapes without the assumption of thermodynamic reversibility, which is central in the majority of established methods for calculating free energies from simulations (McCammon and Harvey, 1987 Elber, 1996) (for applications and discussion of free energy calculation methods see also the chapters by Helms and McCammon, Hermans et al., and Mark et al. in this volume). 

Hydrogen transport costs are in the range of 1 to 4 ct/kWh, with a downward trend in later periods due to the economies of scale achieved by large scale pipeline transport. 

FIGURE 17.12 Reduction in visual scaling achieved using Optimase. Aqueous enzyme was applied followed by Vaseline Intensive Care Lotion. Vehicle (diamonds) and Optimase + VICL (squares). P < 0.05. From El-Kadi, K., Rawlings, A.V., Feinberg, C., Nunn, C., Battaglia, A., Chandar, P., Richardson, N., Sabin, R., and Pocalyko, D. Arch. Dermatol. Res., 293, 500-507, 2001. 

At the small size scales achievable by media milling, particle-particle interactions caused by van der Waals forces can begin to dominate.20 By inclusion of certain additives to the dispersion fluid, the possible agglomeration and resulting reduced efficiency and reduced effectiveness of the mill can be mitigated. Surfactants can... 

Scales can be created based on a number of different theories or models. Three commonly referenced scales are the Guttman scale, Thurstone scale, and Likert-type scale. Developing questions and scales using any of these theories requires some assumptions be made. To reduce error, one measures the extent that the assumptions are met. For example, with the Likert-type scales, one needs to test that summated rating assumptions are met, or that the scale achieves maximum reliability and validity with a minimum number of questions. Other examples of assumptions are that each item can discriminate itself from a different concept (measured by a different scale) and that its properties converge with other like scale items with its own concept. One might also address the reliability of the scale scores and the features of the scale distributions. For a much more extensive discussion, see Nunnaly (1994) and for examples see papers written by Bayliss et al., Me Homey et al., and Wagner. ... 

In 2003, market leader Radiant Research is expected to complete the acquisition of Protocare, another top five SMO. This purchase further establishes Radiant as the largest global owned-site SMO. When completed, the acquisition will expand Radiant s network to nearly 60 sites with an estimated annual revenue of 90 million. With a network of this scale achieved, Radiant may at last be well positioned to achieve the study conduct efficiencies prematurely promised by many of the early entrant SMOs no longer in operation. 

Results on operational stability of both acylases in a recycle reactor at constant conversion1641 with reaction conditions close to intended large-scale conditions demonstrated much better stability of the Aspergillus enzyme, while renal enzyme is not stable enough for long-term operation164,651. Moreover, on the process scale achieved today the supply of renal acylase is insufficient, so that fungal acylase is used almost exclusively nowadays, especially since the price per unit is comparable. 

The catalyst is now dispersed in the ionic liquid phase, from which the pure product separates as a new liquid phase that can be easily decanted after the reaction. The ionic liquid catalyst phase is stiU active and can be reused. It is important that standard hydrosilylation catalysts can be used without further modification. Degussa has been running this process on a pilot scale achieving conversions of >99%. In most cases the detectable platinum content of the products was < 1 ppm. 

Scale-up in a single sealed vessel represents perhaps the least utilized scale-up option, being limited to a few reports in the Advancer and the BatchSYNTH, and even less using the UltraCLAVE. This may be because both the Advancer and the UltraCLAVE are large and expensive instruments, and require more expertise in their use, and also because the cycle time tends to be long for the scale achievable. 

It is noteworthy that this technology on an industrial scale achieves incremental recoveries between 10 - 20 7o OOIP. ... 

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