Scaffolds multiscale

Keywords Bone Cardiovascular tissue engineering Electrospinning Microfibers Multiscale fibrous scaffolds Nanofibers Neural... 

Mechanical, Physicochemical, and Biological Properties of Multiscale Scaffolds. 5... 

To overcome the current limitations, one approach developed mainly in the last 5 years has been to study multiscale scaffolds in an attempt to mimic hierarchical tissue structures. This review essentially focuses on studies involving multiscale fibrous scaffolds, their development, use of different fabrication methods, their properties, and specific applications in tissue engineering. 

Similarly Shalumon et al. also fabricated electrospun porous poly(lactic acid) (PLA) multiscale scaffolds and evaluated their physicochemical and biological properties in detail [53]. These multiscale scaffolds were developed through a bimodal fiber fabrication system. The three main solution properties, solution viscosity, conductivity, and surface tension, were determined to be the governing... 

Fig. 1 SEM images of cell attachment after 12 h of incubation, (a) Cell attachment on multiscale scaffold, (b) Cell growth into the multiscale scaffold arrows indicate spherical morphology of cells attached to microfibers, (c) Cell access to the interior of the multiscale scaffold through the pores in the microfibers (Adapted from [46])...

Multiscale scaffolds thus satisfy the required criteria of an ideal bone regenerating scaffold, namely biocompatibility. Likewise, they promote cellular adhesion, growth, and migration. The bone-specific cells align themselves along the... 

Table 1 Applications of multiscale fibrous scaffolds for tissue engineering... 

Compared to microfiber scaffolds, [48] multiscale scaffolds displayed higher cell viability, ALP activity, and stretched cell morphology... 

Techniques to produce multiscale biomaterial scaffolds with designer geometries are the need of the hour to provide improved biomimetic properties for functional tissue replacements. While micrometer fibers generate an open pore stnicture, nanofibers support cell adhesion and facilitate cell-cell interactions. This was further proven by cell penetration studies, which showed superior ingrowth of cells into hierarchical structures. Mixed bimodal scaffolds of two different polymers are another promising approach, because they exhibit hierarchical pore/ surface systems and combine the beneficial properties of both polymers at two different scales. Vaiious 3D micro- and nanoscale multiscale scaffolds have been fabricated through various techniques and were found to have the potential to essentially recreate natural bone, cardiac, neural, and vascular tissues. 

The multiscale system also appears to be capable of providing more enhanced biological functionality, particularly for vascularization, which is favored by the interaction of ECs with the nanofibrous network.s that allow suitable cell architecture and orientation for microtubule formation. Thus, the synergistic effect of micro- and nanoscales could successfully regenerate natural tissues in vivo in the near future. Future work should focus on optimizing this process to better recapitulate key features of the native ECM, including its mechanical and biochemical properties, which would enhance the functionality of these 3D multiscale scaffolds in order to fabricate functional tissue engineered constructs. 

Sundararaghavan HG, Metter RB, Burdick JA (2010) Electrospun fibrous scaffolds with multiscale and photopattemed porosity. Macromol Biosci 10(3) 265-270 Vanderhooft JL et al (2009) Rheological properties of cross-linked hyaluronan-gelatin hydrogels for tissue engineering. Macromol Biosci 9( l) 20—28... 

Lan Levengood SK, Polak SJ, Wheeler MB, Maki AJ, Clark SG, Jamison RD, Wagoner Johnson AT. Multiscale osteointegration as a new paradigm for the design of calcinm phosphate scaffolds for bone regeneration. Biomaterials 2010 31 3552-63. 

Sanz-Herrera, J.A., Garcia-Aznar, J.M., Doblare, M., 2009. On scaffold designing for bone regeneration a computational multiscale approach. Acta Biomaterialia 5 (1), 219-229. 

Levengood SKL, et al. The effect of BMP-2 on micro- and macroscale osteointegration of biphasic calcium phosphate scaffolds with multiscale porosity. Acta Biomater 2010 ... 

Soliman S, Pagliari S, Rinaldi A, Forte G, Fiaccavento R, Pagliari F, Franzese 0, Minieri M, Nardo P, Licoccia S and Traversa E (2010) Multiscale three-dimensional scaffolds for soft tissue engineering via multimodal electrospinning, Acta Biomater 6 1227-1237. 

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