Reactive Chemical Reactions

Chemical groups that specifically react with carboxylic acids are limited in variety. In aqueous solutions, the carboxylate functional group displays rather low nucleo-philicity. For this reason, it is unreactive with the great majority of bioconjugate reagents that couple through a nucleophilic addition process. 

Several important chemistries, however, have been developed that allow conjugation through a carboxylate group. The following sections briefly describe these reactions. 

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Frontier Orbitals and Chemical Reactivity. Chemical reactions typically involve movement of electrons from an electron donor (base, nucleophile, reducing agent) to an electron acceptor (acid, electrophile, oxidizing agent). This electron movement between molecules can also be thought of as electron movement between molecular orbitals, and the properties of these electron donor and electron acceptor orbitals provide considerable insight into chemical reactivity. 

Carbohydrate molecules containing amine groups, such as D-glucosamine, easily may be conjugated to other macromolecules using a number of amine reactive chemical reactions and crosslinkers (Chapter 2, Section 1 and Chapter 3). Some polysaccharides containing acetylated... 

Self-reactivity Chemical reaction that involves only one chemical substance. 

The effects of ultrasonic irradiation on photochemical reactions have been also reported. In those papers, effects of cavitation were demonstrated. Cavitation means the process in which micro bubbles, which are formed within a liquid during the rarefaction cycle of the acoustic wave, undergo violent collapse during the compression cycle of the wave.5) The dissociation of water to radicals is an example of these effects. Since activated chemical species such as free radicals have high reactivity, chemical reactions proceed. In other words, this phenomenon is a chemical effect of ultrasonic waves. 

When components entering a multistage vapor-liquid separation column are mutually reactive, chemical reactions and phase separation can occur simultaneously in what is generally described as reactive distillation. This phenomenon is found in several operations in the petroleum, chemical, and petrochemical industries. 

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