Radiation emissive power

E = hemispherical emissive power of a blackbody. f = fraction of blackbody radiation lying below X. 

Wooden sticks affected by radiation from the fireball permitted an estimate of the radiation levels emitted. It was thus established that the emissive power of the LPG cloud was approximately 180 kW/m (16 BTU/s/ft ). 

Emissive power is the total radiative power leaving the surface of the fire per unit area and per unit time. Emissive power can be calculated by use of Stefan s law, which gives the radiation of a black body in relation to its temperature. Because the fire is not a perfect black body, the emissive power is a fraction (e) of the black body radiation ... 

Duiser (1989) calculates emissive power from rate of combustion and released heat. As a conservative estimate, he uses a radiation fraction (/) of 0.35. He proposed the following equation for calculating the emissive power of a pool fire ... 

E = emissive power of emitting surface 2 = incident radiation receiving surface... 

In order to compute the thermal radiation effects produced by a burning vapor cloud, it is necessary to know the flame s temperature, size, and dynamics during its propagation through the cloud. Thermal radiation intercepted by an object in the vicinity is determined by the emissive power of the flame (determined by the flame temperature), the flame s emissivity, the view factor, and an atmospheric-attenuation factor. The fundamentals of heat-radiation modeling are described in Section 3.5. 

Radiation effects, as well as combustion behavior, were measured. LNG and refrigerated liquid propane cloud fires exhibited similar surface emissive power values of about 173 kW/m. ... 

The fundamentals of thermal radiation modeling are treated in Chapter 3. The value for emissive power can be computed from flame temperature and emissivity. Emissivity is primarily determined by the presence of nonluminous soot within the flame. The only value for flash-fire emissive power ever published in the open literature is that observed in the Maplin Sands experiments reported by Blackmore... 

Four parameters often used to determine a fireball s thermal-radiation hazard are the mass of fuel involved and the fireball s diameter, duration, and thermal-emissive power. Radiation hazards can then be calculated from empirical relations. For detailed calculations, additional information is required, including a knowledge of the change in the fireball s diameter with time, its vertical rise, and variations in the fireball s emissive power over its lifetime. Experiments have been performed, mostly on a small scale, to investigate these parameters. The relationships obtained for each of these parameters through experimental investigation are presented in later sections of this chapter. 

The emissive power of a fireball, however, will depend on the actual distribution of flame temperatures, partial pressure of combustion products, geometry of the combustion zone, and absorption of radiation in the fireball itself. The emissive power ( ) is therefore lower than the maximum emissive power (E ) of the black body radiation ... 

The curve, however, seems to indicate the tendency of a fireball s emissive power to rise as its diameter grows. The results of the experiments described above reveal that the fireball properties of greatest influence on radiation effects are ... 

Radiation effects from a fireball of the size calculated above, and assumed to be in contact with the ground, have been calculated by Pietersen (1985). A fireball duration of 22 s was calculated from the formula suggested by Jaggers et al. (1986). An emissive power of 350 kW/m was used for propane, based on large-scale tests by British Gas (Johnson et al. 1990). The view factor proposed in Section 6.2.5. 

The heat radiation received by an object depends on the flame s emissive power, the flame s orientation with respect to the object, and atmospheric attenuation, that is... 

The surface-emissive power E, the radiation per unit time emitted per unit area of fireball surface, can be assumed to be equal to the emissive powers measured in full-scale BLEVE experiments by British Gas (Johnson et al. 1990). These entailed the release of 1000 and 2(XK) kg of butane and propane at 7.5 and IS bar. Test results revealed average surface-emissive powers of 320 to 370 kW/m see Table 6.2. A value of 350 kW/m seems to be a reasonable value to assume for BLEVEs for most hydrocarbons involving a vapor mass of 1000 kg or more. 

View factor The ratio of the incident radiation received by a surface to the emissive power from the emitting surface per unit area. 

If the emissive power E of a radiation source-that is the energy emitted per unit area per unit time-is expressed in terms of the radiation of a single wavelength X, then this is known as the monochromatic or spectral emissive power E, defined as that rate at which radiation of a particular wavelength X is emitted per unit surface area, per unit wavelength in all directions. For a black body at temperature T, the spectral emissive power of a wavelength X is given by Planck s Distribution Law ... 

In this way, ihe emissive power of a grey body is a constant proportion of the power-emitted by the black body, resulting in the curve shown in Figure 9.35 where, for example, e = 0.6. The assumption that the surface behaves as a grey body is valid for most engineering calculations if the value of emissivity is taken as that for the dominant temperature of the radiation. 

For a grey body, the emissivity and the absorptivity are, by definition, independent of temperature and hence equation 9.115 may be applied more generally showing that, where one radiation property (a, r or e) is specified for an opaque body, the other two may be obtained from equations 9.115 and 9.124. KirchofPs Law explains why a cavity with a small aperture approximates to a black body in that radiation entering is subjected to repeated internal absorption and reflection so that only a negligible amount of the incident radiation escapes through the aperture. In this way, a - e = 1 and, at T K, the emissive power of the aperture is aT4. 

Equations similar to equation 9.158 may be obtained for each of the surfaces in an enclosure, 1 = 1,1 = 2, 1 = 3, 1 = n and the resulting set of simultaneous equations may then be solved for the unknown radiosities, qoi,qm- qun The radiation heat transfer is then obtained from equation 9.140. This approach requires data on the areas and view factors for all pairs of surfaces in the enclosure and the emissivity, reflectivity and the black body emissive power for each surface. Should any surface be well insulated, then, in this case, Qj — 0 and ... 

Emissive power E Total thermal radiation energy emitted by a surface per unit time per unit surface area The three terms, Emissive power (E),... 

Shokri and Beyler correlated experimental data of flame radiation to external targets in terms of an average effective emissive power of the flame (Shokri and Beyler, 1989). The flame is assumed to be a cylindrical, black body radiator with an average emissive power, diameter (D), and height (T/f), see Figure 5-9. 

In radiation studies it is conventional to relate the magnitude of the effect to the energy absorbed by unit mass.331 Usually one takes the stopping power Sem = dE/p dx. Introducing the mass emissive power with... 

Common mode noise is present equally and in phase in each current carrying wire with respect to a ground plane or circuit. Common mode noise can be caused by radiated emission from a source of EMI. Common mode noise can also couple from one circuit to another by inductive or capacitive means. Lightning discharges may also produce common mode noise in power wiring,... 

In general, the emissivity of a solid is affected by the temperature as well as the wavelength of the radiation. The concept of monochromatic emissivity is related to the radiant emission by a solid at a specific wavelength. The monochromatic emissivity e is defined as the ratio of the monochromatic-emissive power of a solid Ex to the monochromatic-emissive power of a blackbody EbX at the same temperature and wavelength, i.e.,... 

E Total emissive power of radiation No Total number of particles in a... 

Er Energy flux due to thermal radiation, or emissive power of n Number density, or number of particles per unit volume... 

Ek Monochromatic-emissive power of radiation P p Partial pressure of the adsorbate Dimensionless pressure of... 

Ebk Monochromatic-emissive power of blackbody radiation Po adsorbate Saturated vapor pressure... 

This section has been devoted to the study of the surface excitons of the (001) face of the anthracene crystal, which behave as 2D perturbed excitons. They have been analyzed in reflectivity and transmission spectra, as well as in excitation spectra bf the first surface fluorescence. The theoretical study in Section III.A of a perfect isolated layer of dipoles explains one of the most important characteristics of the 2D surface excitons their abnormally strong radiative width of about 15 cm -1, corresponding to an emission power 10s to 106 times stronger than that of the isolated molecule. Also, the dominant excitonic coherence means that the intrinsic properties of the crystal can be used readily in the analysis of the spectroscopy of high-quality crystals any nonradiative phenomena of the crystal imperfections are residual or can be treated validly as perturbations. The main phenomena are accounted for by the excitons and phonons of the perfect crystal, their mutual interactions, and their coupling to the internal and external radiation induced by the crystal symmetry. No ad hoc parameters are necessary to account for the observed structures. 

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