Polymorphism pseudopolymorphism

Solid Form Selection A drug can exist in multiple forms in the solid state. If the two forms have the same molecular structure but different crystal packing, then they are polymorphs. Pseudopolymorphs (or solvatomorphs) differ in the level of hydration/solvation between forms. Polymorphs and pseudopolymorphs in principle will have a different solubility, melting point, dissolution rate, etc. While less thermodynamically stable, polymorphs have higher solubilities they also have the potential to convert to the more thermodynamically stable form. This form conversion can lead to reduced solubility for the formulated product. One example is ritonavir, a protease inhibitor compound used to treat acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Marketed by Abbott Labs as Norvir, this compound began production in a semisolid form and an oral liquid form. In July 1998, dissolution tests of several new batches of the product failed. The problem was traced to the appearance of a previously unknown polymorph (Form II) of the compound. This form is thermodynamically more stable than Form I and therefore is less soluble. In this case, the solubility is at least a factor of 2 below that of Form I.12 The discovery of this new polymorph ultimately led to a temporary withdrawal of the solid form of Norvir from the market and a search for a new formulation. 

It has turned out quite difficult (or impossible) to give a satisfactory definition of polymorphy, distinguishing it from dynamic isomers (see 19) and conformational polymorphs , pseudopolymorphs , etc. For a (confusing) review of the confusion caused by the many different definitions see [Bernstein, 2002, ch. Ij. 

The topics of polymorphism and pseudopolymorphism dominate the majority of publications that deal with utilizing infrared spectroscopy for the physical characterization of pharmaceutical solids. Typically, in each of the publications, IR spectroscopy is only one technique used to characterize the various physical forms. It is important to realize that a multidisciplinary approach must be taken for the complete physical characterization of a pharmaceutical solid. Besides polymorphism, mid- and near-IR have been utilized for identity testing at the bulk and formulated product level, contaminant analysis, and drug-excipient interactions. A number of these applications will be highlighted within the next few sections. 

Infrared spectroscopy has been widely used for the qualitative and quantitative characterization of polymorphic and pseudopolymorphic compounds of pharmaceutical interest. Since solid state IR can be used to probe the nature of (pseudo)polymorphism on the molecular level, this method is particularly useful in instances where full crystallographic characterization of (pseudo)poly-morphism was not found to be possible. Recently, a significant number of publications have appeared that discuss where a multidisciplinary, spectroscopic... 

The most widely used application of solid state NMR in the pharmaceutical industry is in the area of polymorphism, or pseudopolymorphism, and this will be the focus of this section. 

An understanding of crystallization is important for the systematic development of crystal engineering, but it is not a simple phenomenon and many would agree that it is still far too difficult to study in a rigorous way, either experimentally or theoretically. However, indirect approaches to the study of crystallization are evolving. Three possible types of crystals that may be pertinent to this endeavor are (1) polymorphs - these represent cases of alternative crystallization, (2) pseudosymmetric structures with multiple molecules in the asymmetric unit - these could represent cases of incomplete crystallization, and (3) solvated crystals or pseudopolymorphs -these may represent cases of interrupted crystallization. These three scenarios are now sketched very briefly and the treatment given is necessarily selective. 

The importance of polymorphism in pharmaceuticals cannot be overemphasized. Some crystal structures contain molecules of water or solvents, known as hydrates or solvates, respectively, and they are also called as pseudopolymorphs. Identifying all relevant polymorphs and solvates at an early stage of development for new chemical entities has become a well-accepted concept in pharmaceutical industry. For poorly soluble compounds, understanding their polymorphic behavior is even more important since solubility, crystal shape, dissolution rate, and bioavailability may vary with the polymorphic form. Conversion of a drug substance to a more thermodynamically stable form in the formulation can signiLcantly increase the development cost or even result in product failure. 

Single crystal x-ray analysis can often be used to localize the solvent molecules in the crystal lattice, which may be present in stoichiometric ratios or nonstoichiometrically. Byrn (1982) has clas-siLed solvates as polymorphic (desolvate to a newXRD pattern) or pseudopolymorphic (desolvate to a similar x-ray powder pattern). Nonstoichiometric solvates that desolvate to the same x-ray powder pattern are often caused by the presence of channels in the crystal that can take up varying amounts of water based on the vapor pressure. SQ33600 (Brittain et al., 1995) and cromolyn sodium (Cox et al., 1971) are examples of this type of solvate. 

Everz, L. and Mielck, J. (1992). V feter-induced physical transformation of a crystalline drug in a uidized bed pseudopolymorphism-polymorphism of carbamazepiBa/ J. Pharm. Biopharm., 38 28S. 

Figure 9.19 (a) transformations between different polymorphs or pseudopolymorphs of 9.4, (b) TGA... 

Caira MR, Pienaar EW, Lotter AP. 1996. Polymorphism and pseudopolymorphism of the antibacterial nitrofurantoin. Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst. 279 241-264. 

Giron, D. (2001), Investigations of polymorphism and pseudopolymorphism in pharmaceuticals by combined thermoanalytical techniques, J. Thermal Anal. Calor., 64, 37-... 

A cp/mas VACP 13C-NMR study was made of these three pseudopolymorphic crystals (19, 21, and 22).29 The prefix pseudo is affixed to polymorph to describe this series of nefopam methohalide crystals since the anions therein are different. The results of this solid-state 13C-NMR study are presented in Table 3 along with the solution-state 13C chemical shifts. The cp/mas 13C-NMR spectra of crystalline 19, 21, and 22 are illustrated in Fig. 5. It is seen that the C(4) peak (<5 58.51) in the cp/mas 13C-NMR spectrum of the methochloride (22) is sharp due to the sole presence of the immobile BB conformation quaternary ammonium cation in the crystal. However, the C(4) peak (V) 59.42) in the methobromide (21) spectrum was markedly lower in intensity and broad, and in the methiodide (19) spectrum it was just a broad shoulder at 5 62.29 Therefore, as the C(4) nucleus becomes more site-disordered in the crystal due to conformational interconversion, its cp/mas peaks show lower intensities and greater line-broadening. 

If the chemical contents of a polymorph are different than other forms, it is designated as a pseudopolymorph.Most often this occurs due to the presence of differing amounts of solvent, and may alter physical properties of the crystals such as melting points and solubilities. Polymorphism and pseudopolymorphism may be observed when different experimental conditions are used for synthesis. For example, if crystals are grown by sublimation, changing the temperature will often yield different crystal structures, possibly even metastable phases that are kinetically favored. 

McCrone (1965) and Haleblian and McCrone (1969) pointed out that pseudopolymorphism has been used to describe a number of phenomena that are related to polymorphism among them are desolvation, second-order transitions (some of which may be considered examples of polymorphism), dynamic isomerism, mesomorphism. 

While this system falls somewhere on the fuzzy line between polymorphism and dynamic isomerism we agree with McCrone (1965) and Threlfall (1995) that this phenomenon should not be described as pseudopolymorphism. 

McCrone (1957, 1965) has also given detailed descriptions of the microscopic examinations and phenomena that can be used to distinguish polymorphism from other phenomena that sometimes have been mistakenly labelled as pseudopolymorphism mesomorphism (i.e. liquid crystals), grain growth (boundary migration and recrystallization), and lattice strain. 

Other experimental factors that can influence the quality of the DSC measurement and the information that can be extracted from it are sample mass, particle size, the presence of impurities, the shape of the crystalline particles and the presence of nuclei or seeds of various polymorphs. For the investigation of solvates (pseudopolymorphism), the sample pan type also plays an important role (Giron 1995). Threlfall (1995) recommends routinely running both heating and cooling curves, while Perrenot and Widmann (1994) demonstrated the additional information that can be obtained by carrying out multiple heating runs on a particular sample. 

A typical example of the characterization of a polymorphic system by FT Raman spectroscopy has been given by Gu and Jiang (1995) while an application of the technique with near infrared excitation to the polymorphic cimetidine system has been described by Tudor et al. (1991). The FT Raman technique has been compared to infrared diffuse reflection spectroscopy in the study of the polymorphs of spironolactone (Neville et al. 1992), and the pseudopolymorphic transition of caffeine hydrate (i.e. loss of solvent) has been monitored using the technique (de Matas et al. 1996). 

---