Sugar based polymers

Fig. 1.14 (A) Single-wall carbon nanotubes wrapped by glyco-conjugate polymer with bioactive sugars. (B) Modification of carboxyl-functionalized single-walled carbon nanotubes with biocompatible, water-soluble phosphorylcholine and sugar-based polymers. (A) adapted from [195] with permission from Elsevier, and (B) from [35] reproduced by permission of Wiley-VCH.

Synthetic polymers obtained from sugar-based monomers are innocuous for human health. Their hydrophilic nature ensures a greater hydrolytic degradability [6], and reduces their environmental impact compared to classic polymers [3]. 

Some reviews have been published on the synthetic carbohydrate-based polymers and glycopolymers [11-15]. However, they refer mainly to poly(vinylsaccharide)s and other conventional functionalized polymers having sugars as groups pendant from the main chain of the polymer. In this chapter we shall describe those sugar-based monomers which lead to polymers having the sugar units incorporated into... 

Within the framework of systematic research to explore the potential of sugar-based polymers, Muiioz-Guerra and Galbis et al. [24-31] have employed various... 

From the results presented in this chapter we can conclude that it is feasible to prepare sugar-based polymers analogous to the more qualified technological polymers - polyamides, polyesters, polyurethanes - with an enhanced hydrophilicity and degradability. However, in most cases, the high costs associated with the preparation of the monomers restrict the application of these polymers to biomedical applications and other specialized fields. More readily available monomers and simpler polymerization processes have to be found if sugar-derived polymers should compete with petrochemical-based polymers that are used in domestic applications. 

Ref V.A. Augstkalns J. Miller, Evaluation of Sugar-Based Syrups and Polymers as Fuels in Pyrotechnic Systems , E ATM-241-B (1967)... 

A.L. Hart and W.A. Collier, Stability and function of screen printed electrodes, based on cholinesterase, stabilised by a co-polymer/sugar alcohol mixture, Sens. Actuators B, 53 (1998) 111-115. 

Fig. 12 Representation of the antibiofouling and sugar-specific recognition of a zwitterionic polymer-brush-based surface containing concanavalin A. Reprinted, with permission, from [171]. Copyright (2010) American Chemical Society...

The ADMET polymerization of sugar-based monomers is much less explored than the ROMP approach, and only a few examples have been reported to date. Bui and Hudlicky prepared a,oo-dienes derived from a biocatalytically synthesized diene diol, from which chiral polymers (up to 20 kDa) with D-c/uro-inositol units were prepared via ADMET in the presence of 1 mol% of C4 [169]. Furthermore, several ot,co-dienes containing D-mannitol, D-ribose, D-isomannide, and D-isosorbide have been synthesized by Enholm and Mondal [170]. Also in this study, C4 was used to catalyze the ADMET polymerizations at 1 mol% catalyst loading. As pointed out by the authors, the viscosity increased as the reactions progressed and vacuum had to be applied to efficiently remove the released ethylene. Unfortunately, the polymers obtained were not further analyzed. As already mentioned above, Fokou and Meier have also reported the ADMET polymerization of a fatty acid-/D-isosorbide-based a,co-diene [126]. Furthermore, Krausz et al. have synthesized plastic films with good mechanical properties by cross-linking fatty esters of cellulose in the presence of C3 [171-173]. 

Many ATPS systems contain a polymer which is sugar based and a second one which is of hydrocarbon ether type. Sugar-based polymers include dextran (Dx), hydroxy propyl dextran (HPDx), FicoU (Fi) (a polysaccharide), methyl cellulose (MC), or ethylhydroxyethyl cellulose (EHEC). Hydrocarbon ether-type polymers include poly (ethylene glycol) (PEG), poly (propylene glycol) (PPG), or the copolymer of PEG and PPG. De-rivatized polymers can also be useful, such as PEG-fatty acids or di-ethylaminoethyl-dextran (Dx-DEAE). 

The era of biomimetic peptide- and sugar-based polymer vesicles has just begun and seems very promising. Bioinspired vesicles are mainly applied for drug deliv-ery/release and the fabrication of composite materials, but could readily be used for biomimetic materials science, biomineralization, and so on. Especially interesting are smart vesicles changing properties in response to an external stimulus (temperature, pH, ions). 

Both DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides (phosphate-sugar-base), which are formed from nucleosides (sugar-base) and phosphoric acid. However, the polymer chain of DNA is much larger than that of RNA. 

Furan polymers are based on furfuryl alcohol, which is derived from agricultural residues such as corncobs, rice hulls, oat hulls, or sugar cane bagasse. The furan prepolymer is usually cross-linked with furfuryl alcohol, furfuraldehyde, or formaldehyde to yield thermosetting polymers, highly resistant to most aqueous acidic or basic solutions and strong solvents such as ketones, aromatics, and chlorinated compounds. The important characteristic of furan resins is their ability to be stored for long periods of time (up to 5 years), even at low temperatures. 

Sugars and polymers of them are known as carbohydrates because their general formulas can all be written in a simple form as (CH20)x, as if they were a hydrated form of carbon. Another term used to describe sugar-based molecules is rooted in the word "saccharide" (from the Latin, saccharum, meaning sugar). 

An entirely different approach to sugar-based polymers involves the use of selective enzymatic catalysts to prepare vinyl sugar monomers that are subsequently polymerized via chemical catalysts. Tokiwa and Kitagawa (25) published extensively on this subject, and their contribution within this book describes a wide range of sugar monomer structures. 

Sugar Based Polymers Overviews and Recent Advances of Vinyl Sugars... 

Sugar based polymers, which are obtained by polymerization of vinyl sugars, have recently received increased attention from two viewpoints. One is the development of environmentally friendly material from renewable resources. Another is physiologically active material that mimics carbohydrate on cell surface. This article provides an overview of known sugar based polymers and the recent advances of the poly(vinylalcohol) (PVA) with sugar pendants. 

Recently, the development of new functional materials from renewable resources such as various kinds of saccharides has received remarkable interest 1, 2, 3). Various types of synthetic polymer containing saccharides have been investigated ( , 5). There are two types of sugar-based polymers (i) sugar-containing linear polymer (ii) polymer with sugar pendant (Figure 1). 

Poly (Vinylalcohol sugar ester) Figure 10. Strategy for PVA type sugar based polymer... 

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