Planetary radiation

Significant economies of computation are possible in systems that consist of a one-dimensional chain of identical reservoirs. Chapter 7 describes such a system in which there is just one dependent variable. An illustrative example is the climate system and the calculation of zonally averaged temperature as a function of latitude in an energy balance climate model. In such a model, the surface temperature depends on the balance among solar radiation absorbed, planetary radiation emitted to space, and the transport of energy between latitudes. I present routines that calculate the absorption and reflection of incident solar radiation and the emission of long-wave planetary radiation. I show how much of the computational work can be avoided in a system like this because each reservoir is coupled only to its adjacent reservoirs. I use the simulation to explore the sensitivity of seasonally varying temperatures to such aspects of the climate system as snow and ice cover, cloud cover, amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and land distribution. 

Fig. 7-5. Outgoing long-wave planetary radiation as a function of temperature, comparing clear and cloudy skies for carbon dioxide partial pressure equal to one and four times the current level.

I also applied the revised computational method to calculate zonally averaged temperature as a function of latitude. I introduced an energy balance climate model, which calculates surface temperature for absorbed solar energy, emitted planetary radiation, and the transport of heat between... 

Haywood, J. M., and K. P. Shine, The Effect of Anthropogenic Sulfate and Soot Aerosol on the Clear Sky Planetary Radiation Budget, Geophys. Res. Lett., 22, 603-606 (1995). 

Planetary radiation consists of many spectral lines and a radiation continuum. The detector signal is then the superposition of many individual interference patterns (Fig. 5.8.4). In a well-balanced and well-aligned constant-velocity instrument the... 

The composition of the planetary atmospheres is fairly constant. This is indeed surprising in view of the fact that molecules such as methane, ammonia, and carbon dioxide are easily decomposed by the ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Presumably other reactions regenerate those substances that are light sensitive. 

Clouds. Cloud feedback mechanisms are among the most complex in the climate system, due to the many disparate roles played by clouds, which control a large portion of the planetary albedo but also trap terrestrial radiation, reducing the energy escaping to space. To complicate matters further, different t5 es of clouds behave differently in the same environment. In the present climate mode, clouds have... 

Another family of feedbacks arises because the radical differences in the albedo (reflectivity) of ice, snow, and clouds compared to the rest of the planetary surface, which causes a loss of the absorption of solar radiation and thereby cools the planet. Indeed, the high albedo of snow and ice cover may be a factor that hastens the transition into ice ages once they have been initiated. Of course, the opposite holds due to decreasing albedo at the end of an ice age. As simple as this concept may appear to be, the cloud-albedo feedback is not easy to quantify because clouds reflect solar radiation (albedo effect) but absorb... 

Because instrument volume and experiment time must both be minimized for a planetary Mossbauer spectrometer, it is desirable in backscatter geometry to illuminate as much of the sample as possible with source radiation. However, this... 

Cosine smearing. Because instrument volume and experiment time must both be minimized for a planetary Mossbauer spectrometer, it is desirable in backscatter geometry to illuminate as much of the sample as possible with source radiation. However, this requirement at some point compromises the quality of the Mossbauer spectrum because of an effect known as cosine smearing [327, 348, 349] (see also Sects. 3.1.8 and 3.3). The effect on the Mossbauer spectrum is to increase the linewidth of Mossbauer peaks (which lowers the resolution) and shift their centers outward (affects the values of Mossbauer parameters). Therefore, the diameter of the source y-ray beam incident on the sample, which is determined by a... 

The Planetary Energy Balance [3] of Incoming Solar (340 W/m2) minus Reflected (101 W/m2) minus Radiated (238 W/m2) = 1 W/m2. This excess energy warms the oceans and melts glaciers and ice sheets. The GHG component is 2 W/m2. The amount of heat required to melt enough ice to raise sea level 1 m is about 12 Watt-years (averaged over the planet)—energy that could be accumulated in 12 years if the planet is out of balance by 1 W/m2 per year. 

The radiation balance problem is not specific to our solar system and can be applied to all stellar planetary systems, although the number of planets outside our solar system - so-called extrasolar planets - is unknown. As noted earlier, the highest... 

The black body radiation profiles for a planet and the Sun have significantly different maximum temperatures with different spectral characteristics planetary emission is principally in the infrared whereas stellar emission is dominated by the visible. Molecules present in the atmosphere may absorb the infrared radiation and re-radiate the radiation back to Earth. This was thought to be the role of glass... 

In gas clouds containing one or more hot stars (7 cn > 30 000 K), hydrogen atoms are ionized by the stellar UV radiation in the Lyman continuum and recombine to excited levels their decay gives rise to observable emission lines such as the Balmer series (see, for example, Fig. 3.22). Examples are planetary nebulae (PN), which are envelopes of evolved intermediate-mass stars in process of ejection and... 

It is necessary to postulate a dynamic charge distribution as in the well-known, but unrealistic planetary model of the atom. A stable electronic orbit can only be maintained by a constantly accelerated electron, which according to the principles of electrodynamics constitutes a source of radiation. The stability of the atom can simply not be accounted for in terms of classical mechanics. A radically different description of electronic behaviour is required. As a matter of fact, a radically different system of mechanics is required to describe electronic motion correctly and this is where a theoretical understanding of chemistry must start. 

The first application of quantum theory to a problem in chemistry was to account for the emission spectrum of hydrogen and at the same time explain the stability of the nuclear atom, which seemed to require accelerated electrons in orbital motion. This planetary model is rendered unstable by continuous radiation of energy. The Bohr postulate that electronic angular momentum should be quantized in order to stabilize unique orbits solved both problems in principle. The Bohr condition requires that... 

Since the earth has temperature, it emits radiant energy called thermal radiation or planetary infrared radiation. Measurements by satellites show an average radiant emission from the earth of about 240 watts per square meter. This is equivalent to the radiation that a black body would emit if its temperature is at -19°C (-3°F). This is also the same energy rate as the solar constant averaged over the earth s surface minus the 30% reflected radiation. This shows that the amount of radiation emitted by the earth is closely balanced by the amount of solar energy absorbed and since the earth is in this state of balance, its temperature will change relatively slowly from year to year. 

Heat and impact volcanic and impact crater. Defects produced by natural radiation are annealed by heating event. Rocks, clay and lithic tools heated by ancient man or by geothermal events such as volcanic eruptions18 are objects of ESR dating and will be so in future planetary survey. 

His new theory was bused only on what can he observed, that is to say. on the radiation emitted by the atom. We cunnoi. he said, always assign m an electron a position in space ut a given rime, nor loltow it in iis orhti. so lhai we cunnoi assume that the planetary nrbiis postulated by Nick Bohr... 

The necessary starting point for any study of the chemistry of a planetary atmosphere is the dissociation of molecules, which results from the absorption of solar ultraviolet radiation. This atmospheric chemistry must take into account not only the general characteristics of the atmosphere (constitution), but also its particular chemical constituents (composition). The absorption of solar radiation can be attributed to carbon dioxide (C02) for Mars and Venus, to molecular oxygen (02) for the Earth, and to methane (CH4) and ammonia (NH3) for Jupiter and the outer planets. 

---