Physiological/anatomical studies

Microanalytical techniques were first pioneered in the 1960s, and the earliest paper using X-ray microanalysis on plant materials is that of Lauchli and Schwander in 1966 (1). It was soon realized that microanalysis could provide a link between anatomical studies and plant physiology. It allowed scientists who were interested in aspects of plant mineral relations to pursue their interests at a cellular or even subcellular level. Microanalysis, in its various forms, is now a well-established technique, and one that is continuing to develop. 

Germinating seeds and seedlings can also be used for physiological, anatomical, cytological and molecular studies, but these require specific methodology which is neither simple nor fast. 

Pathology is the scientific study of disease processes that affect normal anatomy and physiology. Anatomical and physiological changes are pathological changes when they result from an underlying disease process or abnormality. 

Donoghue DL, King JS, Bishop GA (1989) Physiological and anatomical studies of the interactions between Purkinje cells and basket cells in the cat s cerebellar cortex evidence for a unitary relationship. J Neurosci 9 2141-2150. 

A different type of physiological study that also influenced the alchemists and which bore an eschatological connotation was Andreas Vesalius De humani corporis fahrica libri septem (Basel Johannes Oporinus, 1543). The intriguing aspect of Vesalian anatomical illustration is the visual ambiguity of tbe cadavers as to whether they are truly dead, or still alive in some manner. In these pictures the bodies appear in various states of dismemberment, giving them the Christ-like pathos of Christian martyrs in painted narratives. Anatomy in... 

Data from studies in experimental animals are the typical starting points for hazard and risk assessments of chemical substances and thus differences in sensitivity between experimental animals and humans need to be addressed, with the default assumption that humans are more sensitive than experimental animals. The rationale for extrapolation of toxicity data across species is founded in the commonality of anatomic characteristics and the universality of physiological functions and biochemical reactions, despite the great diversity of sizes, shapes, and forms of mammalian species. 

Dampney RAL, Goodchild AK, Robertson LG, et al Role of ventrolateral medulla in vasomotor regulation a correlative anatomical and physiological study. Brain Res 249 223-235, 1982... 

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