Physical target volume

Bragg Peak and Physical Selectivity. The physical selectivity of carbon ions, other heavy ions, and protons is quite similar. Fig. 19 shows the Bragg peak for carbon ions as a function of depth [44]. The Bragg peak has to be spread out, as for protons, to fully cover the planning target volume (PTV). The ratio between the dose at the level of spread-out Bragg peak (SOBP) and of the initial plateau is compared for carbon ions and protons and for different ions in Figs. 20 and 21 [44,45]. 

Cantilever sensors can detect the following two physical parameters volume and/or mass of target molecules. Since all substances have volume and mass, we can measure almost any kind of substance by using cantilever sensors. To measure volume and mass of target molecules, there are basically two operation modes of cantilever sensors static mode and dynamic mode (Fig. 4.3.1). Details will be described in the following sections. 

Nicotinic cholinergic receptors are located on cells that release a wide variety of transmitters (see chapter by Barik and Wonnacott, in this volume), so that nicotine interacts with multiple neurochemical pathways. The roles of cholinergic, dopaminergic, and endogenous opioid systems in physical dependence and withdrawal have been most thoroughly studied and documented. Research on the role of other transmitters and neurochemical mechanisms is rather scattered. Overall, however, research with rodent models of physical dependence has provided a wealth of potential targets for experimental treatments to aid smoking cessation. 

The process is described in detail by Paterson (Ref 1) and its resume is given by Dunkle (Ref 2) When a detonation wave Sj initiated within a volume of explosive reaches its surface, a shock wave Sj proceeds into the surrounding medium (or target). At the same time, a wave S2 is-reflected into the detonation products this wave is either a shock or rarefaction depending on the physical properties of these products and of the target... 

To design a supercritical fluid extraction process for the separation of bioactive substances from natural products, a quantitative knowledge of phase equilibria between target biosolutes and solvent is necessary. The solubility of bioactive coumarin and its various derivatives (i.e., hydroxy-, methyl-, and methoxy-derivatives) in SCCO2 were measured at 308.15-328.15 K and 10-30 MPa. Also, the pure physical properties such as normal boiling point, critical constants, acentric factor, molar volume, and standard vapor pressure for coumarin and its derivatives were estimated. By this estimated information, the measured solubilities were quantitatively correlated by an approximate lattice equation of state (Yoo et al., 1997). 

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