Penicillium verrucosum

The natural product verrucofortine, 282, contains a pyrrolopyrrolopyrazine structural unit. This compound is a major metabolite of Penicillium verrucosum var. cyclopium, the fungus that produces the mycotoxin verrucosidin < 1988JNP66>. 

Axberg K, Jansson G, Svensson G and Hult K (1997), Varietal differences in accumulation of ochratoxin Ain barley and wheat cultivars after inoculation of Penicillium verrucosum, Acta Agric. Scand., 47, 229-237. 

Elmholt S (2003), Ecology of the ochratoxin A producing Penicillium verrucosum Occurrence in field soil and grain with special attention to farming system and on-farm drying practices , Biol. Agric. Horticul., 20, 311-337. 

Elmholt S and Hestbjerg H (2000), Field ecology of the ochratoxin A-producing Penicillium verrucosum Survival and resource colonisation in soil , Mycopathologia, 147, 67-81. 

Elmholt S and Rasmussen P H (2005), Penicillium verrucosum occurrence and Ochratoxin A contents in organically cultivated grain with special reference to ancient wheat types and drying practice , Mycopathologia, 159, 421-432. 

Elmholt S, Labouriau R, Hestbjerg H and Nielsen J M (1999), Detection and estimation of conidial abundance of Penicillium verrucosum in soil by dilution plating on a selective and diagnostic agar medium (DYSG, ) Mycol. Res., 103, 887-895. 

Petersson S, Hansen M W, Axberg K, Hult K and Schnurer J (1998), Ochratoxin A accumulation in cultures of Penicillium verrucosum with the antagonistic yeast Pichia anomala and Saccharomyces cerevisiae , Mycol. Res., 102, 1003-1008. 

Ramakrishna N, Lacey J and Smith J E (1996a), Colonization of barley grain by Penicillium verrucosum and ochratoxin A formation in the presence of competing fungi . J. Food Protect., 59, 1311-1317. 

Arroyo, M., Aldred, D., and Magan, N. 2005. Environmental factors and weak organic acid interactions have differential effects on control of growth and ochratoxin A production by Penicillium verrucosum isolates in bread. International Journal of Food Microbiology 98 223-231. 

This toxin is a secondary metabolite of Penicillium verrucosum, Aspergillus ochraceus, A. carbonarius, and A. niger fungi, whose development is promoted by favorable environmental conditions,... 

Mycotoxins are defined as mould derived secondary metabolites, Ochratoxin A and aflatoxin B being the most widely studied. Ochratoxin A (OTA), produced by Aspergillus ochraeus and Penicillium verrucosum, can be found as a contaminant in grain, beer, coffee and meat. OTA is nephrotoxic, carcinogenic and genotoxic [235]. 

Amauromine, a dimeric indole alkaloid with hypotensive vasodilator properties, was isolated from Amauroascus species (Gymnoascales, Ascomycotina) (267) and Penicillium verrucosum (26S). The structure of this metabolite was determined by chemical and spectroscopic investigations and confirmed by a total synthesis by Takase et aL 268). The symmetrical diketopiperazine made up of two modified tryptophans, each bearing a 1,1-dimethylallyl group at C-3, was synthesized as shown briefly in Scheme 45. The two inverted prenyl groups were introduced simultaneously by a thio-Claisen rearrangement reaction through the sulfonium salt. 

Since the previous report (Annex 1, reference 153), some isolates previously considered to be Penicillium verrucosum have been segregated on various taxonomic grounds into a separate species, P. nordicum. Larsen et al. (2001) reported that P. nordicum isolates also produce ochratoxin A. Penicillium verrucosum and P. nordicum are classified in Penicillium subgenus Penicillium and are very closely related in appearance and physiology. However, while P. verrucosum is of common occurrence in cereals from cold climates, P. nordicum has been reported to occur in dried proteinaceus foods such as salami, ham and cheese (Frisvad et al., 2004a). On current evidence, P. nordicum appears Xo be a minor source of ochratoxin A in foodstuffs by comparison with P. verrucosum. 

Needham and co-workers [38] applied a commercial EN (Bloodhound BH-114) for early detection and differentiation of both bacteria Bacillus subtilis) and fungi (Penicillium verrucosum and Pichia anomala) spoilage of bread analogues. 

Ochratoxin A (323) is by far the most commonly occurring member of the class of ochratoxins and therefore is the best-characterized and most thoroughly documented (258). It is produced not only by Aspergillus ochraceus and other Aspergillus species but has been found also in Penicillium verrucosum, and occurs with other mycotoxins associated with improperly stored food products (259) (Fig. 6.3 (260)). 

Ochratoxin A 5 Cereals (barley, oats), maize, coffee and cacao beans, raisins and wine, beer, pork-derived products (offal) Penicillium verrucosum Aspergillus ochraceus A. carbonarius... 

Ochratoxin A (OTA) Aspergillus carbomrius, Penicillium verrucosum Dried fruits, cereals, grape juice, wine, coffee... 

Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus, A. nomius Penicillium verrucosum, A. alutaceus, A. carbonarius P. expansum, A. clavatus, Byssochlamys rdvea Fusarium moniliforme, F. proliferatum F graminearum, F. culmorum, F. crookwellense F. graminearum, F culmorum, F. crookwellense... 

Leong S-L, Schniirer J, Broberg A (2008) Veirucine F, a quinazoline from Penicillium verrucosum. J Nat Prod 71 1455-1457... 

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