Ocular toxicity animal studies

White Phosphorus. There is limited information on the ocular toxicity of white phosphoms. Ocular effects were not reported in humans or animals following inhalation exposure. Very few human studies reported ocular effects following acute ingestion of white phosphoms. 

Today, the overwhelming majority of animal ocular toxicity studies are performed in the rabbit model, and the study of SM is no exception. New Zealand white rabbits have been used extensively with both liquid SM and vapor exposures (Amir et al, 2000, 2003 Bossone et al, 2002 Vidan et al, 2002 Babin et al, 2004). Other animal models have been employed, including those using bovine and rat corneas. Many articles appear on these in the Bulletin of Johns Hopkins Hospital, Vol. 82, 1948. Individual articles from this volume are cited in the mechanism of action section. 

No studies correlating blood or urine levels of 2,4-DNP and its metabolites with toxic effects in humans were located. This approach may be worth investigating since limited information from parenteral animal studies indicates that, at least for ocular effects, there is a correlation between levels of 2,4-DNP in the eye and the development of cataracts rate of elimination from serum was also inversely related to cataract development (Gehring and Buerge 1969b). 

The routine ophthalmic examination is an efficient and effective technique to identify ocular toxicity (Munger and Collins, 2013 Wilkie, 2014). Long a required evaluation in Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) safety studies, these examinations can be readily applied to any mammalian in vivo study in which ocular effects are anticipated or observed. Minimal pharmacologic intervention is required to examine the eye, and most typical laboratory animal species require only manual restraint. The examinations are not invasive, and the same animal or cohort of animals can be examined... 

In vitro methods will continue to mature and, little by little, replace animal tests. However, a great deal of work first remains to be done on in vivo toxicological mechanisms. Therefore in vitro methods are already being used both to reduce animal testing (screening) and to study the mechanisms involved in ocular toxicity (research). 

CNTs have been studied for cancer therapies despite the fact that these have been shown to accumulate to toxic levels within the organs of diverse animal models and different cell lines (Fiorito et al., 2006 Tong and Cheng, 2007). The molecular and cellular mechanisms for toxicity of carbon nanotubes have not been fully clarified. Furthermore, toxicity must be examined on the basis of multiple routes of administration (i.e., pulmonary, transdermal, ocular, oral, and intravenous) and on multiple species mammals, lower terrestrial animals, aquatic animals (both vertebrates and invertebrates), and plants (both terrestrial and aquatic). A basic set of tests for risk assessment of nanomaterials has been put forward (Nano risk framework). 

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