Norovirus infection

Carling, P. C., Bruno-Murtha, L. A., and Griffiths, J. K. (2009). Cruise ship environmental hygiene and the risk of norovirus infection outbreaks An objective assessment of 56 vessels over 3 years. Clin. Infect. Dis. 49,1312-1317. 

Grima, A., Gatt, A., Zahra, G., and Gambin, A. (2009). Outbreak of norovirus infection in a nursing home for the elderly in Malta, November - December 2008. Euro. Surveill. 14, 19103. 

Grmek Kosnik, I., Peternelj, B., Pohar, M., and Kraigher, A. (2007). Outbreak of norovirus infection in a nursing home in northern Slovenia, July 2007. Euro Surveill. 12, E071011.3. 

Korsager, B., Hede, S., Boggild, H., Bottiger, B. E., and Molbak, K. (2005). Two outbreaks of norovirus infections associated with the consumption of imported frozen raspberries, Denmark, May-June 2005. Euro Surveill. 10, E050623.1. 

Lindell, A. T., GriUner, L., Svensson, L., and Wirgart, B. Z. (2005). Molecular epidemiology of norovirus infections in Stockholm, Sweden, during the years 2000 to 2003 Association of the GGIIb genetic cluster with infection in children. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43,1086-1092. 

Mara, D. and Sleigh, A. (2010). Estimation of norovirus infection risks to consumers of wastewater-irrigated food crops eaten raw. /. Water Health 8,39—13. 

Okabayashi, T., Yokota, S., Ohkoshi, Y., Ohuchi, H., Yoshida, Y., Kikuchi, M., Yano, K., and Fujii, N. (2008). Occurrence of norovirus infections unrelated to norovirus outbreaks in an asymptomatic food handler population. /. Clin. Microbiol. 46, 1985-1988. 

Rao, S., Scattolini de Gier, N., Caram, L. B., Erederick, J., Moorefield, M., and Woods, C. W. (2009). Adherence to self-quarantine recommendations during an outbreak of norovirus infection. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 30, 896-899. 

Schmid, D., Lederer, I., Pichler, A. M., Berghold, C., Schreier, E., and Allerberger, F. (2005b). An outbreak of Norovirus infection affecting an Austrian nursing home and a hospital. Wien. Klin. Wochenschr. 117, 802-808. 

Webby, R. J., Carville, K. S., Kirk, M. D., Greening, G., Ratcliff, R. M., Crerar, S. K., Dempsey, K., Sarna, M., Stafford, R., Patel, M., and Hall, G. (2007). Internationally distributed frozen oyster meat causing multiple outbreaks of norovirus infection in Australia. Clin. Infect. Dis. 44,1026-1031. 

Westhoff, T. H., Vergoulidou, M., Loddenkemper, C., Schwartz, S., Hofmann, J., Schneider, T., Zidek, W., and van der Giet, M. (2009). Chronic norovirus infection in renal transplant recipients. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 24,1051-1053. 

Reports on Norovirus outbreaks have increased in the past few years. In 2007 the existence of a new Norovirus strain of genogroup II/4 was confirmed by the CDC Enteric Virus Branch in Atlanta, Georgia. This virus is acid-stable and can pass through the stomach undamaged. There is an obvious problem emerging with regard to Norovirus infections (Leuenberger et al., 2007). 

Recently, in another study performed in humans, intranasal vaccine against norovirus infection (known as the stomach flu ) incorporated in a dry powder formulation based on virus-like particle (VLP) antigens including Monophosphoryl Lipid A (GlaxoSmithKline) and chitosan was reported to show immunogenicity in clinical Phase I studies [99]. 

Baert, L., Uyttendaele, M., Van Coillie, E., and Debevere, J. (2008a). The reduction of murine norovirus 1, B. fragilis HSP40 infecting phage B40-8 and E. coli after a mild thermal pasteurization process of raspberry puree. Food Microbiol. 25, 871-874. 

Bruggink, L. D. and Marshall, J. A. (2009). Norovirus epidemics are linked to two distinct sets of controlling factors. Int. ]. Infect. Dis. 13, el25-el26. 

Calderon-Margalit, R., Sheffer, R., Halperin, T., Orr, N., Cohen, D., and Shohat, T. (2005). A large-scale gastroenteritis outbreak associated with Norovirus in nursing homes. Epidemiol. Infect. 133, 35-40. 

Gilbride, S. J., Lee, B. E., Taylor, G. D., and Forgie, S. E. (2009). Successful containment of a norovirus outreak in an acute adult psychiatric area. Infect. Control Hasp. Epidemiol. 30, 289-291. 

Heijne, J. C., Teunis, P., Morroy, G., Wijkmans, C., Oostveen, S., Duizer, E., Kretzschmar, M., and Wallinga, J. (2009). Enhanced hygiene measures and norovirus transmission during an outbreak. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 15, 24-30. 

Jimenez, L. and Chiang, M. (2006). Virucidal activity of a quaternary ammonium compound disinfectant against feline calicivirus A surrogate for norovirus. Am. J. Infect. Control 34, 269-273. 

Kelly, S., Foley, B., Dunford, L., Coughlan, S., Tuite, G., Duffy, M., Mitchell, S., Smyth, B., O Neill, H., McKeown, P., Hall, W., and Lynch, M. (2008). Establishment of a national database to link epidemiological and molecular data from norovirus outbreaks in Ireland. Epidemiol. Infect. 136, 1472-1479. 

Koopmans, M. (2008). Progress in understanding norovirus epidemiology. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 21, 544-552. 

Koopmans, M. (2009). Noroviruses in healthcare settings A challenging problem. J. FIosp. Infect. 73, 331-337. 

Lages, S. L., Ramakrishnan, M. A., and Goyal, S. M. (2008). In-vivo efficacy of hand sanitisers against feline calicivirus A surrogate for norovirus. /. FIosp. Infect. 68,159-163. 

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