Neutrinos

For some experiments, the solar neutrino flux and the rate of decay of the proton being extreme examples, tire count rate is so small that observation times of months or even years are required to yield rates of sufficiently small relative uncertainty to be significant. For high count rate experiments, the limitation is the speed with which the electronics can process and record the incoming infomiation. 

Germanium metal is also used in specially prepared Ge single crystals for y-ray detectors (54). Both the older hthium-drifted detectors and the newer intrinsic detectors, which do not have to be stored in hquid nitrogen, do an exceUent job of spectral analysis of y-radiation and are important analytical tools. Even more sensitive Ge detectors have been made using isotopicahy enriched Ge crystals. Most of these have been made from enriched Ge and have been used in neutrino studies (55—57). 

Properties of Particles. From the research of the early part of the twentieth century, the existence of several types of particles was firmly estabhshed, and the properties were deterrnined. The particles that are involved in the decay of radioisotopes are given in Table 4. An additional type of conservation is that in all atomic and nuclear decays, the number of nucleons, ie, protons and neutrons, is conserved and the number of leptons, ie, electrons and neutrinos, is also conserved. 

Pauli proposed that two particles were emitted, and Fermi called the second one a neutrino, V. The complete process therefore is n — p -H e 9. Owing to the low probabiHty of its interacting with other particles, the neutrino was not observed until 1959. Before the j3 -decay takes place there are no free leptons, so the conservation of leptons requires that there be a net of 2ero leptons afterward. Therefore, the associated neutrino is designated an antineutrino, 9-, that is, the emitted electron (lepton) and antineutrino (antilepton) cancel and give a net of 2ero leptons. 

The masses of the neutrinos have generally been considered to be exactiy 0, but modem theory and some more recent experiments suggest the masses may be non2ero, but stiU on the order of 1 eV. Because the neutrinos have such a small mass and no electrical charge, they interact primarily by the weak interaction. This means that their interaction probabiHty is very small and they typically pass through a mass as large as the earth without interacting. Therefore, they are not useful for any measurements related to radioactive decay. 

Electron Capture and /5" "-Decay. These processes are essentially the inverse of the j3 -decay in that the parent atom of Z andM transmutes into one of Z — 1 andM. This mode of decay can occur by the capture of an atomic electron by the nucleus, thereby converting a proton into a neutron. The loss of one lepton (the electron) requires the creation of another lepton (a neutrino) that carries off the excess energy, namely Q — — Z(e ), where the last term is the energy by which the electron was bound to the atom before it was captured. So the process is equivalent to... 

In this process only one particle is emitted, so the energy spectmm of the neutrinos consists of discrete lines and in principle the energies of the levels in the daughter nucleus could be deterrnined from this spectmm. However, the detection of neutrinos is very difficult, so this is not a practical possibihty. 

Electronic properties of CNTs, in particular, electronic states, optical spectra, lattice instabilities, and magnetic properties, have been discussed theoretically based on a k p scheme. The motion of electrons in CNTs is described by Weyl s equation for a massless neutrino, which turns into the Dirac equation for a massive electron in the presence of lattice distortions. This leads to interesting properties of CNTs in the presence of a magnetic field including various kinds of Aharonov-Bohm effects and field-induced lattice distortions. 

The overall reaction thus converts 4 protons into 1 helium nucleus plus 2 positrons and 2 neutrinos ... 

L. Lederman (Batavia, Illinois), M. Schwartz (Mountain View, California) and J. Steinberger (Geneva) for the neutrino beam method and the demonstration of the doublet structure of the leptons through the discovery of the muon neutrino. 

M. L. Perl (Stanford) and F. Reines (Irvine, California) pioneering experimental contributions to lepton physics (discovery of the tau particle and detection of the neutrino, respectively). 

Second Quantized Description of a System of Noninteracting Spin Particles.—All the spin particles discovered thus far in nature have the property that particles and antiparticles are distinct from one another. In fact there operates in nature conservation laws (besides charge conservation) which prevent such a particle from turning into its antiparticle. These laws operate independently for light particles (leptons) and heavy particles (baryons). For the light fermions, i.e., the leptons neutrinos, muons, and electrons, the conservation law is that of leptons, requiring that the number of leptons minus the number of antileptons is conserved in any process. For the baryons (nucleons, A, E, and S hyperons) the conservation law is the... 

What is needed now is some means for calculating e. To do this, it is useful to consider some component, H, which is formed only by Reaction I, which does not appear in the feed, and which has a stoichiometric coefficient of v/// = 1 for Reaction I and stoichiometric coefficients of zero for all other reactions. It is always possible to write the chemical equation for Reaction I so that a real product has a stoichiometric coefficient of +1. For example, the decomposition of ozone, 2O3 3O2, can be rewritten as 2/3O3 —> O2. However, you may prefer to maintain integer coefficients. Also, it is necessary that H not occur in the feed, that there is a unique H for each reaction, and that H participates only in the reaction that forms it. Think of H as a kind of chemical neutrino formed by the particular reaction. Since H participates only in Reaction I and does not occur in the feed, Equation (2.40) gives... 

Neutrino (V)—A neutral particle of infinitesimally small rest mass emitted during beta plus or beta minus decay. This particle accounts for conservation of energy in beta plus and beta minus decays. It plays no role in damage from radiation. 

Wolfgang Pauli is well recognized as an outstanding theoretical physicist, famous for his formulation of the two-valuedness of the electron spin, for the exclusion principle, and for his prediction of the neutrino. Less well known is the fact that Pauli spent a lot of time in different avenues of human experience and scholarship, ranging over fields such as the history of ideas, philosophy, religion, alchemy and Jung s psychology. Pauli s... 

Crystal anapole moment is composed of the atomic magnetic moments which array in anapole structure [3]. It has the same intrinsic structure as Majorana neutrino [2], If we plant a p decay atom into this anapole lattice, the crystal anapole moment will couple to the nuclear anapole moment of the decaying nuclei. So the emitted electron will be given an additional pseudoscalar interaction by the presence of the crystal anapole moment. Then the emission probability will be increased. This is a similar process to that assumed by Zel dovich [1], The variation of the decay rate may be measured to tell whether the crystal anapole moment has an effect on the p decay or not. 

As the anapole interaction is the candidate which directly breaks parity conservation in electromagnetic interaction [1], it is very desirable to test whether the anapole moment could couple to the p decay or not. This experiment can be performed by solid state detectors as well asby a magnetic spectrometer. There are also other choices for the crystal samples [3] and p sources. Since the anapole moment has the same intrinsic structure as for Majorana neutrinos, its coupling is valid to both p decay and p+ decay. 

Neutrino Mass, Dark Matter, Gravitational Waves, Condensation of Atoms and Monopoles, Light Cone Quantization... 

Confluence of Cosmology, Massive Neutrinos, Elementary Particles Gravitation... 

Three sources have been proposed to produce fluorine in the Galaxy. The first was suggested by Forestini et al. (1992) and refers to production in low-mass stars during the AGB phase while two others are related to massive stars production in Wolf-Rayet stars (Meynet Arnould 2000) and in type II Supernovae, via the neutrino-induced nucleosynthesis (Woosley et al. 1990). 

There are many different extensions of the standard model of particle physics which result in modifications of the early universe expansion rate (the time -temperature relation). For example, additional particles will increase the energy density (at fixed temperature), resulting in a faster expansion. In such situations it is convenient to relate the extra energy density to that which would have been contributed by an additional neutrino with the ordinary weak interactions [19]. Just prior to e annihilation, this may be written as... 

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