Moths enemies

However, not all natural enemies are fully effective. For example, the gypsy moth has approximately 100 parasites and predators attacking it but the pest reaches outbreak levels periodically (35). Nearly 40 biological control agents were introduced from Europe and Asia to control the moth and 11 of these became established (44). Yet not one of the 11 blocontrol agents is providing fully effective control, although each contributes to some limitation of this pest. 

Webb, R.E., M. Shapiro, J.D. Podgwaite, R.C. Reardon, K.M. Taffnan, I. Venables, and D.M. Kolodny-Hirsch. 1989. Effect of aerial spraying with dimilin, dipel, or gypchek on two natural enemies of the gypsy moth (lepidoptera lymantriidae). Jour. Econ. Entomol. 82 1695-1701. 

Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) are a typical class of plant secondary metabolites, which certain butterflies and moths in particular groups, that is, Danainae, Ithomiinae (Nymphalidae), and Arctiidae, sequester as larvae or adults and utilize as chemical defensive substances against predatory enemies, probably due to their bitter taste and hepatotoxicity.13 PAs also serve as precursors of male pheromones of PA-storing lepidopterans. 

ENEMIES. The codling moth does not actually have any effective enemies, as the caterpillar is very well protected inside the fruit. 

The most important enemies of the codling moth are braconid and ichneumon wasps on pupae and fully grown caterpillars. They are not as effective as they are against leaf rollers, however, as the codling moth larva inside the fruit is very well protected against these parasites. 

At least as important as the live enemies is another enemy - the weather. The young caterpillars - especially those of the first generation - are highly sensitive to climatic variations. Rain, a drop in temperature or a strong wind after the caterpillars hatch is almost always fatal for the caterpillars. Cool and wet springs or summers can drastically reduce the codling moth risk. The effect of climate is thus much greater than that of natural enemies. 

ENEMIES. As with other fruit tortrix moths, chalcid and hraconid wasps are potential enemies. They are not very important, however. 

ENEMIES. The most important enemies of the tortrix moths are ichneumon, chalcid and braconid wasps. In many orchards the degree of para-... 

ENEMIES. Birds, especially coal-tits, are important enemies of winter moth caterpillars. The feeding requirements of these birds at brood time are very high (300 caterpillars/day for the brood). Coal-tits are capable of keeping winter moth infestation below the damage threshold. 

ENEMIES. The most important enemies of the leaf-mining moths are bra-conid and chalcid wasps. These are able to keep all the leaf-mining moth species except Leucoptera scitella below the commercial damage threshold. 

To summarize the resistance situation in broad terms, no key pest such as the codling moth, apple maggot, plum curculio has developed resistance to the OP azinphosmethyl, whereas a variety of secondary pests such as mites, aphid, leafhoppers, leafminers and their natural enemies have developed resistant strains thus azinphosmethyl has become more selective. The example cited later of management of cyhexatin resistance management in the spider mite... 

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