Metropolitan area

PAFC systems are commercially available from the ONSI Corporation as 200-kW stationary power sources operating on natural gas. The stack cross sec tion is 1 m- (10.8 ft"). It is about 2.5 m (8.2 ft) tall and rated for a 40,000-h life. It is cooled with water/steam in a closed loop with secondary heat exchangers. The photograph of a unit is shown in Fig. 27-66. These systems are intended for on-site power and heat generation for hospitals, hotels, and small businesses. Another apphcation, however, is as dispersed 5- to 10-MW power plants in metropolitan areas. Such units would be located at elec tric utihty distribution centers, bypassing the high-voltage transmission system. The market entiy price of the system is 3000/kW. As production volumes increase, the price is projec ted to dechne to 1000 to 1500/kW. 

At least three types of problems contribute to air pollution problems on the regional scale. One is the carryover of urban oxidant problems to the regional scale. With the existence of major metropolitan areas in close proximity, the air from one metropolitan area, containing both secondary pollutants formed through reactions and primary pollutants, flows on to the adjacent metropolitan area. The pollutants from the second area are then added on top of the "background" from the first. 

The time required for atmospheric chemical processes to occur is dependent on chemical kinetics. Many of the air quality problems of major metropolitan areas can develop in just a few days. Most gas-phase chemical reactions in the atmosphere involve the collision of two or three molecules, with subsequent rearrangement of their chemical bonds to form molecules by combination of their atoms. Consider the simple case of a bimolecular reaction of the following type-. 

There have been some indications, although controversial, of increased precipitation downwind of major metropolitan areas. Urban addition of nuclei and moisture and urban enhancement of vertical motion due to increased roughness and the urban heat island effect have been suggested as possible causes. 

A version of the Gifford-Hanna model was evaluated (50) using 1969 data for 113 monitoring stahons for particulate matter and 75 stations for SO2 in the New York metropolitan area. This version differed from Eq. (20-19) in considering major point source contributions and the stack height of emission release. This model produced results (Table 20-2) comparable to those of the much more complicated COM model (51). 

Choose a specific metropolitan area and determine its classification as an ozone nonattainment area. Find the alternative deadline and allowable emissions of NO and VOC com-... 

The emphasis on air pollution in different parts of the world has led to marked improvements in air quality. However, there are several metropolitan areas in the world where the air pollution situation is still deteriorating. Examples of such areas are Mexico City, Mexico, New Delhi, India, Cairo, Egypt, and Sao Paulo, Brazil. Most of these badly polluted areas are in developing countries where resources for improving the situation are limited. Thus, these problems are difficult to solve (see Fig. 5.30)." ... 

This incentive problem is increased as the number of polluters and the number of land otvners increase so that it is difficult to pinpoint specific incidents of pollution and their effect on individuals. The case of air pollution from cars and multiple factories is a classic example of this information problem. In a large metropolitan area, there are millions of automobiles and many factories that could contribute to air pollution. There are also millions of individuals who could be harmed by that pollution. But it is generally difficult, if not impossible, for one individual to identify a specific problem they have experienced due to air pollution and then to pinpoint the source of that problem. Such situations, where property rights are... 

Many reformulated gasolines use oxygenated compounds as additives. Clean Air regulations specify the need for oxygenated fuel in 39 metropolitan areas with high carbon monoxide concentrations. The regulations for oxygenated fuel are seasonal ... 

In metropolitan areas adjacent to bodies of water, ferries can be used as mass transit—that is, providing frequent service useful for local travel. Geography limits feri-yboat use to a select group of cities. Twenty-one cities in the United States and its territories have transit ferryboat service. Another example is Vancouver s SeaBus, which provides very frequent shuttle service between the center city and North Vancouver. 

The Sen Francisco metropolitan area had the nation s highest average price per gallon of gas as consumer costs escalated during 2000. (Corbis Corporation)... 

Reformulated Gasoline (RFG) is the gasoline sold in some ozone nonattainment metropolitan areas designed to reduce ozone and other air pollutants. 

The Arsenal is located in the central portion of northern New Jersey, near the town of Dover. This places it at the outer rim of the New York metropolitan area. It occupies a ten mile long valley, lying between mountain ridges which serve as natural barricades. The valley also has a natural water supply which, even today, is adequate. These are the three attributes for which the site was selected nearness to the world of commerce means of protection of the surrounding area from the hazards inherent in its work and the availability of the one extremely vital natural resource — water... 

Eighteen and a half percent of Mexico s total population live in the Mexico City Metropolitan Area (MCMA). The MCMA comprises the Federal District and 17 Municipalities from the State of Mexico. The MCMA has an estimated total area of 2,000 square kilometers, of which 34% is urban, 28% forest, 27% agricultural, and 11% arid. Fifteen million people living in the MCMA produce 36% of the Gross National Product, and consume 15% of total fuel. 

Figure 1. Map of the Mexico City Metropolitan Area showing the location of the following monitoring stations 10-C Azcapotzalco 11-F Tlanepantla 12-L Xalostoc 13-X Merced 14-T Pedregal 15-Q Cerro de la Estrella 16-U Plateros 17-Y Hangeras ...

Table II. Fuel Consumption in Mexico and in Mexico City Metropolitan Area in 1989 (metric tons per day)...

Air quality, concern about deposition of toxic chemicals, 135 Air quality in Mexico City atmospheric pollution, sources, 150r carbon monoxide standards, 156r,157/ fuel consumption in metropolitan area and Mexico, 153r,154 fuel quality, 155... 

Stored in reservoirs, and a growing social perception of problems related to water quantity and quality in reservoirs is expected. Just as an example, the recurrent drought episodes suffered by the Barcelona metropolitan area (Spain) in recent years placed reservoirs at the center-stage since then people are regularly informed about water resources stored in nearby reservoirs in newspapers and TV, and an iconic view from a reservoir has become a nonofficial monitor of the water supply volume available for the city (Fig. 1). 

DAWN is a morbidity and mortality information system, funded by the National Institute on Drug Abuse, in which data are collected from a sample of more than 800 hospitals located in 27 major metropolitan areas in the continental United States, from a National panel of hospitals outside of these areas, and from medical examiners/coroners located in 26 major metropolitan areas. 

The association of substance abuse with emergency department (ED) visits in 21 different metropolitan areas in the United States is reported by the Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN). This survey tracks ED visits that are due to a condition induced by or related to drug use. Included in the data are ED visits associated with alcohol, alone and in combination with other substances of abuse, including cocaine, heroin, marijuana, and major stimulants. Figure 33-2 indicates the number of ED visits that are associated with illicit... 

Meat producers often experience difficulty co-ordinating the complex management of production, processing, delivery and sales system required to target the restaurant market. Compared with wholesalers, individual restaurants do not use large quantities of meat. It would be advantageous for the farmer to be near a large metropolitan area with numerous restaurants. Access to a variety of restaurants will allow the farmer to use up more of his animal. The norm is for the farmer to establish a route and deliver once or twice a week. The farmer could also sell meat bones to chefs who appreciate the quality for soup stock. 

Additional copies of this report are available from the National Academies Press, 500 Fifth Street, N.W., Lockbox 285, Washington, DC 20055 (800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313 (in the Washington metropolitan area) Internet, http //www.nap.edu. 

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