Maximum conviction

Suppose that prior knowledge is of the maximum-conviction form (20), where in addition all... 

Maximum Conviction That Empirical Data Represent the Object... 

Having considered maximum conviction, we now consider the opposite situation, called fair or impartial use of the data. Here, our conviction will only be as strong as the data permit. The motivation is as follows. 

Perhaps the greatest fault with the choice (31) for representing zero prior knowledge is its assertion, with maximum conviction, that the prior object is equal-energy white. This is a definite statement about shape. Again, can this represent a state of zero prior knowledge ... 

To proceed further, we have to make assumptions about the forms for Qn and em. These describe prior knowledge about the object and the noise. For simplicity, let all Qm be equal. This means that we have maximum conviction that the unknown spectrum is a flat one. Such a spectrum may be called quasi-featureless. This prior knowledge should exert a smoothing influence on the solution. Sure enough, by Eq. (58) the object is now being restored by a principle of maximum entropy H, known to foster smoothness in its outputs (Frieden, 1972). 

Subsequent research by Herschel (1971), Kikuchi and Softer (1977), and Frieden (Chapter 8) has refined the concept in a way that provides an explicit and sensible accounting for noise contributions. This work also provides solutions that incorporate a type of prior knowledge not used before. In particular, the users may express their bias by proposing a prior spectrum or guess as to what the true spectrum o(x) might look like. Furthermore, they may express their relative confidence in the guess by specifying a probability of occurrence for each value that may be assumed by an element of the estimate o(x). Both the prior spectrum and its associated user-conviction probability function may be obtained from past experience by statistical analysis. In Chapter 8, Frieden examines the possibilities of maximum and minimum conviction in connection with the types of prior... 

Principle (17) now consists of just the Bose-Einstein degeneracy factor, exactly Kikuchi and Soffer s form (1977). Also, as these authors showed (see also Section IX.B), in the case (11a) of sparsely occupied df it becomes Jaynes s maximum-entropy form (39) (Jaynes, 1968). Hence, both the Kikuchi-Soffer and Jaynes estimators are special cases of the ML approach, corresponding to the prior knowledge that the unknown spectrum is equal-energy white with the highest conviction. 

We shall find estimates hm in numerical cases consisting of experimental data (Section XI.A) and simulated data (Section XI.B). In all cases, high-conviction form (20) will be assumed because the solutions hm are relatively easy to form and because of the ease with which prior knowledge Qm may be varied. In Section XI.A low photon occupancy nm/zm will be assumed, whereas in Section XI.B both low and high occupancies will be allowed. Note that low occupancy is consistent with maximum entropy according to Section IX.B, that is, particlelike behavior for the photons, whereas high occupancy is consistent with wavelike behavior for the photons. How, then, does the wave or particle nature of photons affect the estimates ... 

High conviction of white object Qm = 1 /M for all m, low occupancy ratio njzm High conviction of white object Qm = 1 /M for all m, high occupancy ratio njzm Maximum ignorance (MacQueen-Mar-schak), general occupancy ratio njzm Impartial conviction, empirical data, general occupancy ratio njzm... 

Distribution, which includes selling or giving away more than 100 grams of amphetamine is illegal under CSA section 841. It is an offense punishable by prison terms of a minimum of five years and up to 40 years with fines of up to 2 million. If death or injury results from illegal distribution, the penalties become imprisonment for a minimum of 20 years to more than life and a fine of 2 million. A person convicted of selling amphetamines to someone under 21 years of age is subject to twice the maximum punishment. 

The laws and punishment regarding possession of poppers in the United States vary from state to state. In some states, it is illegal to inhale any type of fumes for the purpose of intoxication. For example, in New York, possession or use of any alkyl nitrite, including amyl, butyl, and isobutyl, is a Class A misdemeanor, which carries a jail term of up to one year. The judge also has other punishment options, including imposing a fine and driver s license suspension or revocation. In Connecticut, conviction for possession of amyl nitrite without a prescription carries a penalty for a first offense of up to seven years in prison and a fine of up to 50,000. The maximum penalty for a second conviction is 15 years in prison and a fine of 100,000. 

Possession of amyl nitrite without a prescription in Pennsylvania is a misdemeanor under the state s Controlled Substances, Drugs, Devices, and Cosmetics Act. A first-time conviction carries a penalty of up to three years in state prison and a fine of up to 5,000. A second offense conviction carries a penalty of up to three years in prison and a fine of up to 25,000. In Georgia, amyl nitrite is considered a dangerous drug. A conviction for possession without a prescription carries a penalty of up to a year in jail and a fine of up to 5,000. A conviction of amyl nitrite possession in outh Dakota is a Class One misdemeanor. It carries a maximum penalty of one year in county jail and a fine of 1,000 for the first offense. 

Conviction under the New Jersey law carries a fine of between 250 and 400 and up to 30 days in jail for a first offense. The offender can also lose their driver s license for six months to a year. For a second conviction, the penalty is a 500 to 1,000 fine and up to 90 days in jail. Offenders must also perform 30 days of community service work and lose their driver s license for two years. A third or subsequent conviction carries a 1,000 fine and up to six months in jail. Offenders also forfeit then-driver s license for 10 years. In West Virginia, the minimum penalty for conviction of driving under the influence of amyl nitrite is one day in county jail and a 100 fine. The maximum sentence is six months in jail and a 500 fine. 

Anyone convicted of transporting or dealing dextroamphetamine faces stiff penalties. Federal guidelines mandate that a first-time trafficking offender face up to 20 years in prison and a 1 million fine. If death or serious injury is involved with the trafficking charge, the sentence must be at least 20 years with a maximum sentence of life in prison. 

Although there are federal guidelines for sentencing of drug possession, the penalties imposed are a bit more subjective. There is a particular offense level based on the amount of ecstasy or number of pills in possession, and a penalty associated with that offense level. The penalty for first offense possession of a small (personal) amount of ecstasy is a maximum of one year in prison and a fine. Someone with one prior conviction is subject to a term of 15 days to two years in prison, and two or more prior convictions to a term of 90 days to three years, both with increasing fines. Along with the base offense level, courts also take into account the offender s history of drug offenses, whether another crime was committed, and circumstances at the time of the arrest. 

Persons convicted on federal charges of possessing any controlled substance face penalties of up to one year in prison and a mandatory fine of no less than 1,000 up to a maximum of 100,000. Second convictions are punishable by not less than 15 days but not more than two years in prison and a minimum fine of 2,500. Subsequent convictions are punishable by not less than 90 days but not more than three years in prison and a minimum fine of 5,000. 

Distribution, which includes selling or even giving any mixture or substance containing a detectable amount of methylphenidate is illegal under CSA Section 841. For a first offense, it is punishable by a prison term of not more than 20 years and fines up to 1 million for an individual or 5 million if not an individual. If death or serious bodily injury results, imprisonment terms not less than 20 years or more than life. A second offense is punishable by a prison term of not more than 30 years, and a fine of up to 2 million for an individual or up to 10 million if not an individual. If death or serious injury results, life imprisonment is the punishment. A person convicted of selling MPH to someone younger than 21 years of age is subject to twice the maximum punishment authorized. ... 

People found to be in possession of Rohypnol, regardless of the quantity involved, are subject to a maximum sentence of three years in prison. People found to be importing or exporting Rohypnol, regardless of the quantity involved, are subject to a maximum sentence of 20 years. However, if death or bodily injury results, the minimum sentence is 20 years and the maximum sentence is life in prison. If the defendant has a prior felony conviction, the minimum sentence is 30 years in prison. 

C-B is a Schedule I substance and thereby falls under the penalties associated with that group of drugs. Persons convicted of first-time possession of 2C-B in a federal court face up to a year in prison and a mandatory fine of at least 1,000 up to a maximum of 100,000. A first-time conviction for the sale or possession for sale of 2C-B by a federal court carries a prison sentence of up to 20 years and a fine of up to 1 million. 

Great Britain regulates 2C-B under the Medicines Act. A conviction for possession of the drug carries an average sentence of two years and two months in prison and a fine of about 185. The maximum sentence is seven years in prison and an unlimited fine. The maximum penalty for selling 2C-B is life in prison and an unlimited fine. 

There was little public concern over the use of marijuana during this period, with one notable exception. In 1926 a scries of articles was printed in two New Orleans newspapers. They sensationally exposed the menacing presence of marijuana and attributed a number of crimes and heinous acts to use of the drug. Although many of these lurid reports were ridiculous and fabricated, a Louisiana law mandating a maximum penalty of a 500 fine and/or six months imprisonment for conviction of possession or sale of marijuana was passed the next year. This law had little effect on... 

All calculated values of reactivity coefficients were conservatively modified by a 1.5 factor of safety to account for uncertainties in reactivity coefficients. For credible accidents, a sodium-in Doppler effect of —0.0048 was used. In the case of the maximum hypothetical accidents, a sodium-out Doppler effect T dkjdT) of —0.004, as well as the calculated —0.006, was used. The normally prompt, negative coefficient from axial fuel expansion was assumed to be zero, more for consistency with past practice than from conviction. Other reactivity coefficients employed in the analyses were those from the radial and material expansions. 

The maximum fine, on summary conviction, for most offences is 20 000. There is no limit to the fine on conviction on indictment. Imprisonment for up to two years can be imposed for certain offences. In addition to any other penalty, the Court can make an order requiring the cause of the offence to be remedied. If a person on whom an improvement or prohibition notice is served fails to comply with it, he is liable to prosecution and failure to comply with the prohibition notice could lead to imprisonment. 

Any breach of the statutory duties imposed by either of the aforementioned Acts can result in the employer being involved in criminal proceedings. The penalties under the Health and Safety at Work Act include unlimited fines and imprisonment for up to two years, for prosecution on indictment. On average, twenty directors, managers, supervisors, employees are individually prosecuted per annum. No individual has yet been imprisoned, but suspended sentences - of up to one year - have been passed. The maximum fine, on summary conviction, for certain offences is 2000. 

Any person who fails to comply with their duties under the Order as regards fire risks can be prosecuted alongside or instead of a responsible person. Fines are limited to the statutory maximum (or levels 3 or 5 on the standard scale) on summary conviction but on indictment, the fine is unlimited. 

Offences prosecuted under the HSW Act or Regulations attract a maximum fine of 5000 if tried on summary conviction in a Magistrates Court. Exceptionally this is a maximum of 20000 for breaches of Sections 2-6 (General duties) and 20000 and/or six months imprisonment for contravening a prohibition notice, an improvement notice or order of the court. 

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