Manuring practices

Simpson LA., van Bergen P.F., Perret V., Elhmmali M.M., Roberts D.J., Evershed R.P., Lipid biomarkers of manuring practice in relict anthropogenic soils, The Holocene, 1999, 9, 223 229. 

Soils have also been examined directly, not for evidence of possible contamination, but as a study of manuring practice in medieval to early modern Orkney, Scotland. The sterols campesterol, sitosterol, and 5/1-stigmastanol were used as biomarkers for ruminant animal manure and coprostanol for omnivorous animal manure, with hyodeoxycholic acid used to further define the manure as coming from pigs (Bull et al. 1999, Simpson et al. 1999). It is rare to be able to extract sterols from such samples because their natural abundance is generally low. If they can be found, however, then they are useful as unambiguous biomarkers for either plants or animals. 

From the practical point of view, the principal variation of environment which is definitely under the control of the cultivator, is, of course, the alteration in the composition of the soil, which is brought about by scientific manuring, llie analysis of fruits and vegetables will give the ordinary agriculturist much information as to the necessary mineral ingredients to be added to the soil but in the case of essential oils, the conditions are entirely different. The various parts of the plant tissue are affected in different ways by the same mineral salts, and successful development of the fruit or any other given part of the plant may have little or no relationship with the quantity or quality of essential oil produced. So that it is only by actual distillations of the plant, or portion of the plant, coupled with an exhaustive examination of the essential oil, that informative results can be obtained. 

Fertilization using animal products has been practiced since ancient times. Animal manure returns nutrients to the soil, replenishing elements that are depleted as crops are grown and harvested. It is likely that the use of animal fertilizers quickly followed the domestication of goats, sheep, and cattle. 

Several practices have been suggested to reduce enteric CH4 emissions and emissions from wasfe. These include improving feeding practices, use of diefary supplemenfs, vaccines, improving livestock management, improving manure management, and production of biofuels. 

Composted dung is richer in nutrients and more active, provided it has been properly made, than comparatively fresh material that has not decomposed. However, in ordinary practice, manure cannot be rotted or stored without serious loss. Although well-rotted manure may contain more plant food than an equal weight of fresh manure, a given quantity of fresh manure will contain more plant food than composted manure that has been stored. 

To improve the ability to establish best practice with respect to manure use and prevention of pathogen transfer (especially on farms which are converting to organic farm management), a hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP)-based quality assurance system has been proposed (Haward and Leifert, 1999). This proposed four main critical control points (CCPs) (see Table 19.4). 

Hancock D D, Rice D H, Herriott D E, Besser T E, Ebel E D and Carpenter L V (1997), Effect of farm manure-handling practices on Escherichia coli 0157H7 prevalence in cattle , Journal of Food Protection, 60, 363-366. 

Bogaard, A., Heaton, T. H. E., Poulton P. and Merbach, I. (2007) The impact of manuring on nitrogen isotope ratios in cereals archaeological implications for reconstruction of diet and crop management practices. Journal of Archaeological Science 34, 335 343. 

Normal agricultural practices generally cause an enrichment of heavy metals in soil, particularly Zn, Cu and Cd, due to the application of manure or its derivatives, compost or sludge and inorganic fertilisers and other human activities such as... 

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