Logical empiricism

When the significance and the reliability of the correspondence between theories and experiments are considered, two main alternatives are available. The Standard View, based on the ideas of logical empiricism, assumes that the experiments can confirm a scientific theory, i.e., that they can increase its probability (here intended as logical confidence in its truth, i.e., in its correspondence with the real world). On the contrary, Falsificationism, first proposed by Karl Popper [17], claims that experiments cannot demonstrate the truth of a theory but can only falsify the theory, i.e., demonstrate that a theory is unfit to describe an experimental result. 

Theobald published an article on Bachelard s philosophy of chemistry in French [1982], but in his English language publication on the philosophy of chemistry [1976] he goes along with mainstream logical empiricism. 

With the decline of dialectical materialism as a political force, discussions on the philosophy of chemistry in Eastern Europe disappeared. While philosophy of science in the tradition of logical empiricism was interested in what Kant called proper science, i.e. exact (mathematised, if possible axiomatised) science, under dialectial materialism in Eastern Europe there was more room for the philosophy of the science(s) of different kinds of matter (though still not very much). 

Whereas many early-twentieth-century physicists were inclined to regard conventionalism, complementarity, and indeterminacy as concessions of failure in their traditional philosophical enterprise, chemists were not surprised that a simple, "logical" account of the behavior of electrons and atoms, like that of molecules and people, often gives way to the inconsistencies and uncertainties of empiricism. This is a point of view they taught physicists to accept, among them, Richard Feynman ... 

Constructivism is linked to the philosophical-epistemological theory of (scientific) relativism or empiricism, which is in contrast to another theory, that of (scientific) realism or objectivism or positivism. Realists believe logical analysis applied to objective observations can be used to discover the truth about the world we live in. Relativists accept the existence of a real world, but question whether this world is knowable . They note that observations, and the choice of observations to be made, are influenced by the beliefs, theories, hypotheses, and background of the individual who makes them (6). Realism and empiricism must be considered as two extremes on a continuum. It is certain that in its early years (surely until, say, the beginning of the twentieth century), science was closer to relativism, but as time passed, we came closer to a realist state. Note that are there are those who argue that philosophical and educational constructivisms are intertwined (15, 16), and those who are against (IT) and critical (18) of the way these philosophical theories are linked to education theories. 

Before moving on to (IR3), it is useful to contrast the ideas behind (IR2) with related approaches, the logical positivists and Dummett s verificationism. According to logical positivism, all synthetic sentences should be verifiable, at least in principle, on the basis of experience unverifiable sentences are meaningless. The view developed above differs from this in two respects. First, it is not committed empiricism, so it does not constrain admissible verifications in the way logical positivism does. If it turns out that mathematics is synthetic a priori, as Kant believed, that is perfectly acceptable. The justification conditions which determine... 

Two Dogmas of Empiricism. In From a Logical Point of View, 20-46. 

In the many traditional methods of calculating turbulent flows, these turbulence terms are empirically defined, i.e., turbulence models that are almost entirely empirical are used. Some success has, however, been achieved by using additional differential equations to help in the description of these terms. Empiricism is not entirely eliminated, at present, by the use of these extra equations but the empiricism can be introduced in a more systematic and logical manner than is possible if the turbulence terms in the momentum equation are completely empirically described. One of the most widely used additional equations for this purpose is the turbulence kinetic energy equation and its general derivation will now be discussed. 

Proof in the strict sense cannot be delivered by a controlled clinical study, which has been called the sacred cow . (5) However, the probability of statistical error in terms of the chosen target criteria can be fixed in advance. In clinical studies, different interpretations of results are still possible, since intuitive medical observation and judgement remain indispensable in the individual case (E. Buchborn, 1982). The triad of empiricism, intuition and logic is necessary in both diagnosis and treatment (R. Gross, 1988). 

On Logical Positivism as a synthesis of traditional empiricism and traditional rationalism see M. Friedman, Reconsidering Logical Positivism (Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 5 and 9. 

The inconsistency of Vernadsky s empiricism manifests itself in his views on the nature of scientific facts. According to him, the incontestable part of science consists of three parts the scientific apparatus of facts, logic and mathematics. However, a scientific fact is not a fact of everyday life. A scientific fact is a mathematically-processed and systematised fact (Vernadsky, 1980, pp. 108-109). Hence, any fact constituting scientific apparatus already contains a large portion of theory and cannot be seen as a purely empirical fact. 

The school of British Empiricism of John Locke (1632-1704), George Berkeley (1685-1753) and David Hume (1711-1776) continued on from the foundations laid by Bacon. It was perhaps no accident that Locke was a medical man, a practitioner. His empiricism was based upon a kind of sensory atomism. He distinguished between primary characteristics of objects such as solidity, figure, extension, motion, rest and secondary characteristics due to the way we perceive them, such as colour, taste and smell. Berkeley, a bishop, disagreed with this separation of existence from perception his famous dictum was to be is to be perceived , Hume anticipated the modern conclusion of the logical positivists... 

Modern science and engineering requires high levels of qualitative logic before the act of precise problem formulation can occur. Thus, much is known about a physicochemical problem beforehand, derived from experience or experiment (i.e., empiricism). Most often, a theory evolves only after detailed observation of an event. Thus, the first step in problem formulation is necessarily qualitative (fuzzy logic). This first step usually involves drawing a picture of the system to be studied. 

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