Knowledge pyramid

The following case studies describe typical examples in pharmaceutical powder technology, which illustrate different levels of knowledge as steps on the knowledge pyramid (see Figure 20.2). 

FIGURE 20.2 The knowledge pyramid for product development. (From Hussain, A B rmaceutical Process Scale-Up, M. Levin (Ed.), Marcel Dekker, New York (2002).)... 

The examples above demonstrate the impact of the percolation theory in developing scientiLc network to build the knowledge pyramid for product development (see Figure 20.2). 

Let us think abont how we can make a first hypothetical approach to what an expert system wonld constitnte. A standard model in the science of knowledge management is the knowledge pyramid, which basically describes the quantitative and logical relationship among data, information, knowledge, and action (please also refer to Fignre 2.1). 

Data These represent the basis of the knowledge pyramid and are a result of measurements, observations, and calculations. They are usually available in a large amount (as the broad basis indicates) and are usually meaningless if they are disconnected from their context. The raw data points of a spectrum are a typical example These data points are useless without additional data describing the measurement technique, parameters, conditions, and attributes, such as sample identifier. The additional data that describe the context are usually referred to as metadata (i.e., data about data). 

Action The final step in the concept of a knowledge pyramid is applying the knowledge to make decisions and to finally take certain actions. Without applying the knowledge, the entire approach is purely theoretical. 

FIGURE 2.1 The relationship among data, information, knowledge, and action is described by the knowledge pyramid. The transition from data to information is performed by calculation, analysis, and interpretation performed by computer software, whereas in the transition from information to knowledge, human interpretation, experience, and intuition play a major role. The final step of reasoning leads to actions to be taken. Amount, context, and patterns can be considered as theoretical factors in contrast to that, real data have to be described by concepts of certainty, probability, and fuzziness. 

The coordinated macrocycle readily reacts with alkoxide ions to yield products of type (71) (Taylor, Urbach Busch, 1969). In so doing additional flexibility is imparted to the ring which may reduce ring strain and, in part, provide a driving force for the reaction. Thus the coordinated imine carbons appear predisposed to attack by such nucleophiles. Based on this knowledge, elegant template syntheses of three-dimensional derivatives have been performed. The syntheses involved the reaction of [M(taab)]2+ (M = Ni, Cu) with the dialkoxide ions derived from bis(2-hydroxyethyl)sulphide or bis(2-hydroxyethyl)methylamine (Katovic, Taylor Busch, 1969). The products were demonstrated to be monomeric square-pyramidal complexes of type (72). The condensation... 

In this chapter, the very widespread industrial application of colloid chemistry will be described. Surprisingly enough, mankind has been aware of colloids for many thousands of years. The old Egyptian and Mayan civilizations, without cement, used their knowledge about adhesion (between blocks of stones) when building pyramids. 

Pharmaceutical Powder Technology—Building the Pyramid of Knowledge and the Challenge of FDA s PAT Initiative... 

The case studies above illustrated that the Lrst principles of physical pharmacy can be translated into laws of particulate matter in order to reach the apex of the pyramid of knowledge (see Figure 20.1). Keeping in mind that powders consist of elementary particles, it becomes attractive to develop a new scientiLc framework for powders, which we can call Physical Particuology in analogy to physical chemistry. 

Chapter 20 Pharmaceutical Powder Technology-Building the Pyramid of Knowledge... 

Reaction of Cytochrome cIinn with Bis(ferrozine)copper(II) Knowledge of the redox properties of cytochrome c was an encouragement to initiate a kinetics investigation of the reduction of an unusual copper(II) complex species by cyt c11. Ferrozine (5,6-bis(4-sulphonatophenyl)-3-(2-pyridyl)-1,2.4-triazine)286 (see Scheme 7.1), a ligand that had come to prominence as a sensitive spectrophotometric probe for the presence of aqua-Fe(II),19c,287 forms a bis complex with Cu(II) that is square pyramidal, with a water molecule in a fifth axial position, whereas the bis-ferrozine complex of Cu(I) is tetrahedral.286 These geometries are based primarily upon analysis of the UV/visible spectrum. Both complexes are anionic, as for the tris-oxalato complex of cobalt in reaction with cytochrome c (Section 7.3.3.4), the expectation is that the two partners will bind sufficiently strongly in the precursor complex to allow separation of the precursor formation constant from the electron transfer rate constant, from the empirical kinetic data. 

In the human brain, the knowledge of the distribution of the mRNAs coding for 5-HT3A and 5-HT3B receptor subunits is much more limited. By in situ RT-PCR, the co-localization of both subunit mRNAs in a population of neurons in monkey lateral amygdala, and entorhinal cortex and in pyramidal cells of the human cerebral cortex (163) has been described. 

Knowledge of the energy-level diagram for the square pyramidal geometry allows us to rationalize immediately (22) the rates of ligand labilization in M(H20)62+ molecules (kt), determined in the classical... 

This section on single electron ionization to form cation radicals is logically concluded by a brief discussion of the possibility of ionization to form dications and of their chemistry. Though quantitation is absent, there are three pieces of indirect data that relate to this latter class of cations. The first is the existence and the high stabilityof the pyramidal carbocation, [C(Me)]6 (41). This species may be viewed as formally the dication of hexamethylbenzvalene where the five-fold symmetry in the dication is thwarted by Jahn-Teller effects for the neutral and radical cation forms. No coproportionation reaction of this dication and any neutral benzvalene has been reported to our knowledge. 

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