Karlodinium veneficum

One hour exposure of five day old zebrafish larvae to cultures Karlodinium veneficum... 

Relative Abundance of Karlodinium veneficum and Pfiesteria spp. in Water Samples Screened with Species Specific Molecular Probes... 

Peng, J. et al.. Structure of Karlotoxin-2 from a marine dinoflagellate Karlodinium veneficum, J. Am. Chem. Soc. (in press), 2007. 

Jnu couplings have been used by Wright and co-workers to characterize karlotoxin 1, a new toxin from Karlodinium veneficum and by Ye and co-workers in structure elucidation of six new phochinenins A-F from Pholidota chinensis. 

Sutfo-Karlotoxln 1 (Ri OSO3H. R2 H) Karlodinium veneficum (Georgia,USA)... 

Distribution K. veneficum has been reported from the North Sea British Isles Oslo Fjord, Norway Whangakoko, South Island, New Zealand Swan River, Perth, Western Australia St. Johns River, Florida, USA Neuse River, North Carolina Maryland Princess Anne Co., Manokin River, Hyrock fish farm, Chesapeake Bay South Atlantic Ocean Walvis Bay, South Africa, and the eastern coast of Kamchatka, Avachinskay Gube Inlet, Russia. Owing to the similarity between the different species of Karlodinium, the reports need to be confirmed using molecular data. 

The toxic activity is easily released from K. veneficum cells either by filtration and/or by centrifugation [139] (see Figure 33.6). However, under normal conditions greater than 90% of the toxin is cell bound [161]. A hemolytic assay based on the lysis of fish erythrocytes is routinely utilized to screen for karlotoxin in Karlodinium species [139]. Cultures and culture fractions that are positive in the hemolytic assay are tested further using assays for ichthyotoxicity and cytotoxicity as described above for Pfiesteria toxins. Erythrocyte suspensions are prepared as described in Edvardsen et al. 

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