Introduction to Raman Spectroscopy

A nano-light-source generated on the metallic nano-tip induces a variety of optical phenomena in a nano-volume. Hence, nano-analysis, nano-identification and nanoimaging are achieved by combining the near-field technique with many kinds of spectroscopy. The use of a metallic nano-tip applied to nanoscale spectroscopy, for example, Raman spectroscopy [9], two-photon fluorescence spectroscopy [13] and infrared absorption spectroscopy [14], was reported in 1999. We have incorporated Raman spectroscopy with tip-enhanced near-field microscopy for the direct observation of molecules. In this section, we will give a brief introduction to Raman spectroscopy and demonstrate our experimental nano-Raman spectroscopy and imaging results. Furthermore, we will describe the improvement of spatial resolution... 

Ferraro, J. R. and K. Nakamoto (1994), Introduction to Raman Spectroscopy, Academic Press, New York. 

Woodward, L. A. (1967). General introduction to Raman spectroscopy. In Raman Spectroscopy (H. A. Szymanski, ed.). Plenum, New York, pp. 1-43. 

Technical advances in spectrometers, detection systems and especially lasers as excitation sources have opened up the entire area of biochemistry for Raman studies in the last decade. General introductions to Raman spectroscopy are found in Tobin (1971), Anderson (1971) and Colthup et al, (1975). A review of biological applications has been published by Carey and Salares (1980). Reviews dealing specially with lipids are those by Wallach et al. (1979) and Verma and Wallach (1983). 

For a detailed description of the basic principles of Raman spectroscopy, the associated instrumentation and potential for spectroscopic imaging, the reader is referred to some of the many excellent texts in the literature. This chapter provides an introduction to Raman spectroscopy and how it is measured. It outlines some experimental considerations specific to biospectroscopy and explores applications from molecular through cellular to tissue imaging for biochemical analysis and disease diagnostics. The complementarities and potential advantages over IR spectroscopy [Fourier Transform (FTIR) and Synchrotron Fourier Transform (S-FTIR)] are described. Finally, the future potential of the development of Raman spectroscopy for biochemical analysis and in vivo disease diagnostics are projected. 

As described at the end of section Al.6.1. in nonlinear spectroscopy a polarization is created in the material which depends in a nonlinear way on the strength of the electric field. As we shall now see, the microscopic description of this nonlinear polarization involves multiple interactions of the material with the electric field. The multiple interactions in principle contain infomiation on both the ground electronic state and excited electronic state dynamics, and for a molecule in the presence of solvent, infomiation on the molecule-solvent interactions. Excellent general introductions to nonlinear spectroscopy may be found in [35, 36 and 37]. Raman spectroscopy, described at the end of the previous section, is also a nonlinear spectroscopy, in the sense that it involves more than one interaction of light with the material, but it is a pathological example since the second interaction is tlirough spontaneous emission and therefore not proportional to a driving field... 

In 1994, we proposed that a metallic needle having a nano-tip at its apex be employed as a nano-light-source for microscopy attaining nanometric spatial resolution [2]. Later, we expanded the technique to Raman spectroscopy for molecular nano-identification, nano-analysis and nano-imaging. In this chapter, we give a brief introduction to local plasmons and microscopy using a metallic nano-needle to produce the local plasmons. Then, we describe the microscope that we built and... 

N.J. Everall, Industrial applications of Raman spectroscopy. In D.L. Andrews and A.A. Demidov (Eds.), An Introduction to Laser Spectroscopy, Plenum Press, New York, 1995, pp. 115-131. 

D.J. Gardiner, Introduction to Raman scattering, in Practical Raman Spectroscopy, D.J. Gardiner and P.R. Graves (Eds), Springer-Verlag, New York, 1989. 

The Second-Order Raman Spectrum of IJC Diamond An Introduction to Vibrational Spectroscopy of the Solid State 32... 

Abstract The introduction of Raman spectroscopy into new fields has been driven largely by advances in the underlying technology. While the spectrometer is still comprised of a light source, a wavelength selector, and a detector, the improvement in functionality of each of these components has had dramatic impacts on areas where Raman was once thought impractical, if not impossible. In addition, esoteric techniques once confined to academic spectroscopy labs are now finding wide application. 

Gardiner, D.J. Introduction to Raman Scattering. In Gardiner, D.J. Graves, P.R. (eds) Practical Raman Spectroscopy, 1st Edition Springer-Verlag New York, 1989 pp. 1-12. 

Vibrational spectroscopy is an important tool for the characterization of various chemical species. Valuable information regarding molecular structures as well as intra- and intermolecular forces can be extracted from vibrational spectral data. Recent advances, such as the introduction of laser sources to Raman spectroscopy, the commercial availability of Fourier transform infrared spectrometers, and the continuing development and application of the matrix-isolation technique to a variety of chemical systems, have greatly enhanced the utility of vibrational spectroscopy to chemists. 

Barron LD, Torrance JF, Cutler DJ (1987) J Raman Spectrosc 18 281 Barron LD, Vrbancich J (1984) Topics Current Chem 123 151 Barron LD, Wen ZQ, Hecht L (1992a) J Am Chem Soc 114 784 Barrow GM (1962) Introduction to Molecular Spectroscopy. McGraw Hill, New York Barrow RF, Long DA, Millen DJ (1973) Molecular Spectroscopy, A Specialist Periodical Report. The Chemical Society, London... 

On going from the first to the second edition of the text, we significantly modified the chapters on symmetry and molecular orbital theory. These changes have been well received, and as a result, we have developed the discussion of vibrational spectroscopy still further to include the use of character tables to determine the symmetry labels of the vibrational modes and which modes of vibration are IR and/or Raman active. We have also significantly altered the discussion of term symbols and microstates in the introduction to electronic spectroscopy of /-block metal complexes. 

NJ Everall. An introduction to laser spectroscopy. In DL Andrews, AA Demidov, eds. Industrial Applications of Raman Spectroscopy. New York Plenum Press, 1995, pp 115-131. 

The objective of this chapter is to provide an introduction to Raman spectroscopic microscopy and its potential for biochemical analysis and clinical diagnostic applications, such that it can be compared and contrasted to the techniques of synchrotron and bench-top mid-FTIR spectroscopy discussed elsewhere in this book. Raman spectroscopy is a complementary technique to mid-IR absorption spectroscopy with established capabilities for materials and process analysis. As a bioanalytical and diagnostic technique, similar to FTIR spectroscopy, its potential has been demonstrated although there are many differing technical considerations to be addressed. Raman has potentially significant advantages as well as drawbacks compared to FTIR techniques. Here we endeavour to outline these benefits and pitfalls and project the complementary and competitive usage of Raman techniques. 

Raman spectroscopy I c.i.so showed that the addition of up to io% of water does not affect the concentration of nitronium ions further dilution reduces the concentration of this species, which is not detectable in solutions containing < 85 % sulphuric acid. The introduction of... 

An Introduction to Time-Resolved Resonance Raman Spectroscopy and Its Application to Reactive Intermediates... 

AN INTRODUCTION TO TIME-RESOLVED RESONANCE RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY... 

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