Intended concept

By taking existing tools and by asking fundamentally new questions, the IMPROVE project tried to balance between relevance for industry on the one and scientific focus for research on the other hand. Usability is specifically addressed by carefully regarding application-specific aspects and by the ergonomic evaluation of intended concepts and resulting tool functionality. Model and tool integration is still a hot topic of practice and research. As shown in Chap. 7, results of the IMPROVE project can be transferred to industrial practice. 

Even after teaching the traditional lesson on ionic bonding, a high school teacher came across these concepts of salt particles or NaCl particles again although the students have learned a lot about ions and ionic charges over a period of 10 lessons, they still produce concepts which are comparable to the status quo before any of these lessons were introduced. That means that this concept does not outlast the lesson. It does not mean that the students do not know the correctly intended concept taught in the lesson unit but rather that... 

A teacher trainer, instructor) chooses instance descriptions (examples) of instances of the intended concept, and presents them to a learner. There are different ways of presenting examples all-at-once and chunk-wise (for instance, one-by-one). 

An identification criterion is a criterion that defines under what circumstances learning is successful in identifying the intended concept (that is, in producing a hypothesis that is correct wit the intended concept). There are two main identification criteria. 

Definition 3-3 A learner L correctly identifies an intended concept C in the limit iff the infinite sequence of hypotheses produced by L, say //j, 7/2,..., is such that there exists some number n such that // = for every m>n, and such that // is correct wrt C. 

Years later, Leslie G. Valiant has introduced/ AC (probably-approximately-correct) identification [Valiant 84] [Pitt and Valiant 88], which is today s most-used learning model. The idea is to weaken the tight constraints of identification-in-the-limit by allowing the final hypothesis to be nearly correct wrt the intended concept. Moreover, the actual learning process is usually based on a finite presentation, although admissible presentations are mostly infinite. Other motivations are the need for polynomialtime learning, and the need for tolerance to noise hence a probabilistic approach. 

Definition 3-4 A learner P AC-identifies an intended concept iff an arbitrary hypothesis that is consistent with the examples presented so far can be guaranteed with high probability to be consistent with most of the examples that are yet to be presented. 

These three strategies differ by the representative subset of the version space they build. Ultimately, the minimal hypotheses of the inferred hypothesis (set) are retained, because they are satisfied by the potentially smallest possible set of examples unrelated to the intended concept. The data-driven approach has a low tolerance to noise. 

The objective of this book is to provide a comprehensive introduction to the upstream industry useful for industry professionals who wish to be better informed about the basic methods, concepts and technology used. It is also Intended for readers not directly working in oil and gas companies but who are providing related support services. 

The words basic concepts" in the title define what I mean by fundamental." This is the primary emphasis in this presentation. Practical applications of polymers are cited frequently—after all, it is these applications that make polymers such an important class of chemicals—but in overall content, the stress is on fundamental principles. Foundational" might be another way to describe this. I have not attempted to cover all aspects of polymer science, but the topics that have been discussed lay the foundstion—built on the bedrock of organic and physical chemistry—from which virtually all aspects of the subject are developed. There is an enormous literature in polymer science this book is intended to bridge the gap between the typical undergraduate background in polymers—which frequently amounts to little more than occasional relevant" examples in other courses—and the professional literature on the subject. 

There is hardly a metal that cannot, or has not, been joined by some welding process. From a practical standpoint, however, the range of alloy systems that may be welded is more restricted. The term weldability specifies the capacity of a metal, or combination of metals, to be welded under fabrication conditions into a suitable stmcture that provides satisfactory service. It is not a precisely defined concept, but encompasses a range of conditions, eg, base- and filler-metal combinations, type of process, procedures, surface conditions, and joint geometries of the base metals (12). A number of tests have been developed to measure weldabiHty. These tests generally are intended to determine the susceptibiHty of welds to cracking. 

D. R. Cox, P/anning of Experiments,]ohxi Wiley Sons, Inc., New York, 1958. This book provides a simple survey of the principles of experimental design and of some of the most usehil experimental schemes. It tries "as far as possible, to avoid statistical and mathematical technicalities and to concentrate on a treatment that will be intuitively acceptable to the experimental worker, for whom the book is primarily intended." As a result, the book emphasizes basic concepts rather than calculations or technical details. Chapters are devoted to such topics as "Some key assumptions," "Randomization," and "Choice of units, treatments, and observations."... 

The selection of materials to be used in design dictates a basic understanding of the behavior of materials and the principles that govern such behavior. If proper design of suitable materials of construction is incorporated, the eqiiipment should deteriorate at a uniform and anticipated gradual rate, which will allow scheduled maintenance or replacement at regular inteivals. If localized forms of corrosion are characteristic of the combination of materials and environment, the materials engineer should still be able to predict the probable life of equipment, or devise an appropriate inspection schedule to preclude unexpected failures. The concepts of predictive, or at least preventive, maintenance are minimum requirements to proper materials selection. This approach to maintenance is certainly intended to minimize the possibility of unscheduled production shutdowns because of corrosion failures, with their attendant possible financial losses, hazard to personnel and equipment, and resultant environmental pollution. 

It is intended that the use of the tables should be combined with sound engineering judgment and consideration of all relevant factors. Eurthermore, all the solutions presented may not be applicable to a given situation. It should also be recognized that the solutions presented could introduce potential hazards that were not originally present. Therefore, it is necessary to use the table in the context of the total design concept to insure that all hazards have been considered. 

Supplier partnerships or alliances have been used to control the cost of procurement. They are based on methods developed in Japan, initially in the automobile industry. These methods have been extended into the process industry and for the purchase of such items as compressor trains. Generally as originally conceived, they were intended mainly for commodity items. By using some innovative approaches, the concept of partnerships or alliances has been extended into the purchase of custom equipment. 

The book is intended for engineers, scientists, seniors at the university level, and graduate students who have a fundamental understanding of the concept of fluid flow, thermodynamics, and heat transfer. The handbook bridges the disciplines of engineering and occupational health and safety (industrial hygiene). The book can be used as a textbook, a scientific reference for researchers, and a fundamental handbook for practitioners in the industrial air technology field. 

This concept book is intended for nse by chemical engineers and other technical personnel involved in the design, operation, and maintenance of facilities and eqnipment where deflagration and detonation arresters (DBAs) may be reqnired. These people are nsnally technically competent individnals who are aware of, bnt not experts in, combnstion phenomena. The facilities where snch devices may be needed inclnde chemical plants, petrochemical plants, petrolenm refineries, pharmacentical plants, specialty chemical plants, storage tank farms, loading and nnloading facilities, and pipelines. 

Risk is defined as tlie product of two factors (1) tlie probability of an undesirable event and (2) tlie measured consequences of the undesirable event. Measured consequences may be stated in terms of financial loss, injuries, deatlis, or Ollier variables. Failure represents an inability to perform some required function. Reliability is the probability that a system or one of its components will perform its intended function mider certain conditions for a specified period. Tlie reliability of a system and its probability of failure are complementary in tlie sense tliat the sum of these two probabilities is unity. This cluipler considers basic concepts and llieorenis of probability tliat find application in tlie estimation of risk and reliability. 

Thermodynamics centers around the concept of energy in transit, but is considerably more encompassing in its applications. The science of thermodynamics deals very broadly with the concepts of how things work, why some things cannot work, and why some things do not work as intended. Three laws of thermodynamics have been formulated, which can be summarized as follows ... 

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