Indirect measurement system

Indirect measurement systems are used when the actual data is not collected at the time the event occurs. This indirect method is usually not as good as the direct method because it depends heavily on the accuracy of the alternate data source. 

A set of experiments on gas-liquid motion in a vertical column has been carried out to study its d3mamical behavior. Fluctuations volume fraction of the fluid were indirectly measured as time series. Similar techniques that previous section were used to study the system. Time-delay coordinates were used to reconstruct the underl3ung attractor. The characterization of such attractor was carried out via Lyapunov exponents, Poincare map and spectral analysis. The d3mamical behavior of gas-liquid bubbling flow was interpreted in terms of the interactions between bubbles. An important difference between this study case and former is that gas-liquid column is controlled in open-loop by manipulating the superficial velocity. The gas-liquid has been traditionally studied in the chaos (turbulence) context [24]. 

Paper II presents a hypothetical method to indirectly measure the key quantities of a PBC, that is, the mass flow and the stoichiometry of the conversion gas, as well as the air excess numbers of the conversion and combustion system, defined in paper I. It also includes a measurement uncertainty analysis. 

In Section 3.5.3, dry powder inhalers have been referred to as breath-controlled devices. The efficacy of dry powder inhalation is a function of many factors, influencing the delivered dose of fine particles and the deposition of these particles in the respiratory tract. Figure 3.4 shows that DPI performance is influenced both directly and indirectly by the design of the inhalation system. The powder formulation, the dose (measuring) system and the powder disintegration principle have to be designed correctly for release of sufficient fine drug particles in... 

Consequently, the SDS microemulsion system is the best model for indirect measurement of log Pow. However, this is valid only for neutral solutes. We reported that the relationship between MI and log Pow for ionic solutes is different from that for neutral solutes (49). This would be caused by the ionic interaction between ionic solutes and the ionic microemulsion as well as ionic surfactant monomer in the aqueous phase. Kibbey et al. used pH 10 buffer for neutral and weak basic compounds and pH 3 buffer for weak acidic compounds (53). Although their purpose was to avoid measuring electrophoretic mobility in the aqueous phase, this approach is also helpful for measuring log Pow indirectly. 

Table 4.1 shows the solar system abundances of the elements as determined by the methods discussed above. For some elements, the photospheric abundances provide the best estimate, whereas for others, the meteorite data must be used. In some cases, the data are equally reliable and an average of the values determined from the solar photosphere and Cl chondrites is used. The abundances of the noble gases come from indirect measurements or theoretical considerations. The method for determining each abundance is indicated in the far right column of Table 4.1. 

The Heisenberg space defines the available uncertainty space where, in quantum mechanics, it is possible to perform, direct or indirect, measurements. Outside this space, in the forbidden region, according to the orthodox quantum paradigm, it is impossible to make any measurement prediction. We shall insist that this impossibility does not result from the fact that measuring devices are inherently imperfect and therefore modify, due to the interaction, in an unpredictable way what is supposed to be measured. This results from the fact that, prior to the measurement process, the system does not really possess this property. In this model for describing nature, it is the measurement process itself that, out of a large number of possibilities, creates the physical observable properties of a quantum system. 

In the preparation and stablization of small, supported-catalyst particles, the consideration of surface mobility is essential. If the active component is in a high state of dispersion, conditions under which high mobility is attained must be avoided, since these conditions lead to particle size growth. On the other hand, a poorly dispersed component may be partially redispersed by treatment in a more highly mobile state. In supported catalyst systems, the interaction between the dispersed species (the active component) and the support is always of important concern, and a measure of the mobility of the active component is an indirect measure of this important interaction. 

According to Ekins [27], the fundamental difference between competitive and non-competitive methods is based solely on the approach adopted to detect the antibody occupancy from which the analyte concentration in the system is deduced. Competitive assays rely on the indirect measurement of occupancy by observation of unoccupied sites. In this case the amount of antibody must be kept small to minimize errors in the indirect estimate of the occupied sites. Non-competitive assays rely on direct measurement of binding site occupancy so that the use of large amounts of antibody is advantageous. 

Significant advances have occurred during the past decade to miniaturize the size of the measurement system in order to make online analysis economically feasible and to reduce the time delays that often are present in analyzers. Recently, chemical sensors have been placed on microchips, even those requiring multiple physical, chemical, and biochemical steps (such as electrophoresis) in the analysis. This device has been called lab-on-a-chip. The measurements of chemical composition can be direct or indirect, the latter case referring to applications where some property of the process stream is measured (such as refractive index) and then related to composition of a particular component. 

Pharmacokinetic Measures of Systemic Exposure Both direct (e.g., rate constant, rate profile) and indirect (e.g., Cmax, Tmax, mean absorption time, mean residence time, Cmax normalized to AUC) pharmacokinetic measures are limited in their ability to assess rate of absorption. This guidance, therefore, recommends a change in focus from these direct or indirect measures of absorption rate to measures of systemic exposure. Cmax and AUC can continue to be used as measures for product quality BA and BE, but more in terms of their capacity to assess exposure than their capacity to reflect rate and extent of absorption. Reliance on systemic exposure measures should reflect comparable rate and extent of absorption, which in turn should achieve the underlying statutory and regulatory objective of ensuring comparable therapeutic effects. Exposure measures are defined relative to early, peak, and total portions of the plasma, serum, or blood concentration-time profile, as follows ... 

When DNA damage occurs, a number of repair systems can increase the cell s probability of survival. Several assays for genotoxicity rely on indirect measurement of the effects of these repair systems. TWo assays (the B. subtilis rec assay and the E. ooli DNA polymerase assay) measure reduction in the survival of chemically treated cells that lack at least one DNA-repair enzyme, compared with cells that have an intact repair system.198 373... 

The indirect measurement of the aqueous vapor pressure of capillary systems by freezing point depression of benzene." Proc. Roy. Soc. London, 106 (Ser. A) 233-242. 

A new fundamental feature pops up the event leading to an actual energy transfers between the measuring I-frame system and the amplifier device. This kind of event discloses an interaction with the measured system albeit indirectly. At any rate, energy conservation is required because this is a Fence event between two different material systems. 

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