In human milk

Human exposure to environmental contaminants has been investigated through the analysis of adipose tissue, breast milk, blood and the monitoring of faecal and urinary excretion levels. However, while levels of persistent contaminants in human milk, for example, are extensively monitored, very little is known about foetal exposure to xenobiotics because the concentrations of persistent compounds in blood and trans-placental transmission are less well studied. Also, more information is needed in general about the behaviour of endocrine disruptive compounds (and their metabolites) in vivo, for example the way they bind to blood plasma proteins. 

E. A. Hogendoom, G. R. van der Hoff and P. van Zoonen, Automated sample clean-up and fractionation of organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in human milk using NP-HPEC with column-switching , J. High Resolut. Chromatogr. 12 784-789 (1989). 

A. Glausch, J. Hahn and V. Schurig, Enantioselective determination of chiral 2,2, 3,3, 4,6-hexachlorohiphenyl (PCB 132), in human milk samples by multidimensional gas clnomatography/electi on capture detection and by mass spectrometiy , Chemosphere 30 2079-2085 (1995). 

No data were located concerning whether pharmacokinetics of endosulfan in children are different from adults. There are no adequate data to determine whether endosulfan or its metabolites can cross the placenta. Studies in animals addressing these issues would provide valuable information. Although endosulfan has been detected in human milk (Lutter et al. 1998), studies in animals showed very little accumulation of endosulfan residues in breast milk (Gorbach et al. 1968 Indraningsih et al. 1993), which is consistent with the rapid elimination of endosulfan from tissues and subsequent excretion via feces and urine. There are no PBPK models for endosulfan in either adults or children. There is no information to evaluate whether absorption, distribution, metabolism, or excretion of endosulfan in children is different than in adults. 

Saleh M, Kamel A, Ragab A, et al. 1996. Regional distribution of organochlorine insecticide residues in human milk from Egypt. J Environ Sci Health B 31(2) 241-255. 

In addition to IL-10, TGF-(3 is a key cytokine in immune tolerance. It was investigated whether orally administered TGF-(3, such as TGF-(3 in human milk, retains and exerts its activity in the intestinal mucosa and can induce immune tolerance to dietary antigens. In a relevant mice model the oral administration of TGF-(3 increased activation and response in TGF-(3-related responsive elements and increased serum TGF-(3 levels [118]. BALB/c mice treated orally with OVA and TGF-(3 showed augmented... 

Khachik, F. et al., Identification, quantification, an relative concentrations of carotenoids and their serum metabolites in human milk and serum, Anal. Chem., 69, 1873, 1997. 

Pathogen-suppressing oligosaccharides in human milk were quantitated using capillary Electrophoresis by MEKC with detection by absorption at 205 nm.90 A 24 kDa glycoprotein associated with muscle-wasting cachexia... 

Dabeka RW, Karpinski KF, McKenzie AD, et al. 1988. Survey of lead and cadmium in human milk and correlation of levels with environmental and food factors. Sci Total Environ 71 65-66. 

Chan GM, Rau C, Gellermann W, and Ermakova M (2006), Retinopathy of prematurity and carotenoids in human milk fed infants, Abstract, Meeting of the American Academy of Pediatrics, Washington, D.C. 

Jackson, J. G. and J. P. Zimmer (2007). Lutein and zeaxanthin in human milk independently and significantly differ among women from Japan, Mexico, and the United Kingdom. Nutr. Res. 27(8) 449 -53. 

Fiirst P (2006) Dioxins, PCB, and other organohalogen compounds in human milk. Mol Nutr Food Res 50 922-933... 

Improper disposal of e-waste has been regarded as the major source of PCDD/ Fs occurring in China s environment [46]. Consequently, e-waste recycling should be somewhat responsible for human exposure to dioxins in China. A comparison of dioxins in human samples from e-waste recycling and reference sites would either confirm or disapprove the notion. The levels of PCDD/Fs (List 4 of Appendix) in human milk samples from a group of pregnant women... 

Zhao G, Xu Y, Li W, Han G, Ling B (2007) PCBs and OCPs in human milk and selected foods from Luqiao and Pingqiao in Zhejiang, China Sci Total Environ 378(3) 281-292. doi 10.1016/j.scitotenv. 2007.03.008... 

Chao HR, Wang SL, Lee CC, Yu HY, Lu YK, Pake O (2004) Level of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, dibenzofurans and biphenyls (PCDD/Fs, PCBs) in human milk and the input to infant body burden. Food Chem Toxicol 42(8) 1299-1308. doi 10.1016/j. fct.2004.03.008... 

Meironyte D, Bergman A, Noren K (1998) Analysis of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in human milk. Organohalogen Compd 35 387-390... 

G. Boehm, B. Stahl, J. Jelinek, J. Knol, V. Miniello, and G. E. More, Prebiotic carbohydrates in human milk and formulas, Acta Paediatr. Suppl., 94 (2005) 18-21. 

Detection of residues in human milk and adipose tissues... 

Bush, B., J. Snow, S. Connor, L. Rueckeit, Y. Han, P. Dymerski, and D. Hilker. 1983. Mirex in human milk in upstate New York. Arch, Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 12 739-746. 

Bush B., J.T. Snow, and S. Connor. 1983. High resolution gas chromatographic analysis of nonpolar chlorinated hydrocarbons in human milk. Jour. Assoc. Offic. Anal. Chem. 66 248-255. 

Hong, C.S., J. Xiao, A.C. Casey, B. Bush, E.F. Fitzgerald, and S.A. Hwang. 1994. Mono-ortho- and non-o/t/fo-substituted polychlorinated biphenyls in human milk from Mohawk and control women effects of maternal factors and previous lactation. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 27 431-437. 

Miyazaki, T., et al. Chlordane residues in human milk, Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 25,518, 1980. 

Figure 20. Temporal trends in the levels of dioxins andfurans in human milk in various countries participating in consecutive rounds of the WHO exposure study (Alcock and Bashkin et al., 2003).

Compared to adults, the daily intake of PCDD/PCDFs and PCBs by breastfed babies is 1-2 orders of magnitude higher. A recent field study showed higher mean levels of PCDD/PCDFs and PCBs in human milk in industrialized areas (10-35 pg I-TEQ/g milk fat) and lower levels in developing countries (< 10 pg I-TEQ/g milk fat). Very few studies have been performed on Arctic populations with respect to the exposure of children to these substances. It is likely, however, that the differences in exposure between children and adults demonstrated in many industrialized regions also exist in Arctic regions. 

Olfactorily active compounds carried in human milk have rarely been subjected to chemical analysis (Stafford, Horning and Zlatkis 1976 Pellizari, Hartwell, Harris III, Waddell, Whitaker and Erickson 1982 Shimoda, Ishikawa, Hayakawa and Osajima 2000 Bingham, Sreven-Tuttle, Lavin and Acree 2003), and so far no attempt was undertaken to characterize the volatile composition of human AG secretions. Thus, the degree of their chemical overlap or specificity cannot be evaluated. Here we present preliminary data from such comparative analyses of colostrum and AG secretions from the same women. 

Warded, J.M., Wright, A.J., Bardsley, W.G. and D Souza, S.W. (1984) Bile salt-stimulated lipase and esterase activity in human milk after collection, storage, and heating nutritional implications. Pediatr. Res. 18, 382-386. 

Alawi MA, Ammari N, Al-Shuraiki. 1992. Organochlorine pesticide contaminations in human milk samples from women living in Amman, Jordan. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 23 235-239. 

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