Human error costs

As per the findings of the U.K. Protection and Indemnity (P I) Club, human error costs the maritime industry around 541 million annually [21],... 

Process Hazards Analysis. Analysis of processes for unrecogni2ed or inadequately controUed ha2ards (see Hazard analysis and risk assessment) is required by OSHA (36). The principal methods of analysis, in an approximate ascending order of intensity, are what-if checklist failure modes and effects ha2ard and operabiHty (HAZOP) and fault-tree analysis. Other complementary methods include human error prediction and cost/benefit analysis. The HAZOP method is the most popular as of 1995 because it can be used to identify ha2ards, pinpoint their causes and consequences, and disclose the need for protective systems. Fault-tree analysis is the method to be used if a quantitative evaluation of operational safety is needed to justify the implementation of process improvements. 

The safety "campaign" must not be a one-shot exercise because then the effects will be short-lived (not more than 6 months). This makes the use of such campaigns costly in the long nm despite the initial appearance of a cheap solution to e problem of human error. 

This one costly human error had a considerable effect on the Congress, just then in the process of hammering out certain provisions of TSCA—The Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976. In particular those sections dealing with the premarket testing of hazardous chemicals, their labeling and distribution were affected (ref. 154). 

In writing on human error, Senders and Moray (1991, p. 128) conclude Human error rates can be reduced to as low a level as desired, at some unknown cost. The occurrence of a particular error at a particular instant, however, cannot absolutely be prevented. Even if the patient suffers no permanent harm, a service failure or mistake in a pharmacy is a significant event. The consequences of a service failure or mistake in a pharmacy include a deterioration of trust in the pharmacist and the system, the spread of negative word-of-mouth advertising, the possibility of legal action, possible board of pharmacy involvement, the erosion of customer patronage, and a diminished level of profit (see Chapters 7, 28, and 30 on minimizing the occurrence of prescription errors). 

Microprocessors boards are used on smaller RO units that require minimum input/output (I/O) function. In general, standard manufactured microprocessor boards, inexpensive are used. Troubleshooting a microprocessor board can be difficult without proper documentation and experience. In many cases, it would be quicker and more cost effective to replace a mal-functioning control board. Damage is usually caused by human errors on field wiring. 

Additional controls can result in improved monitoring and adjustment of the operating parameters to ensure the greatest level of efficiency. Automation can reduce the human errors resulting in spills and costly downtime. The resulting increase in efficiency owing to automation can increase the product yields. 

Although manual sorting is applied in many cases to separate waste materials, its application is not ideal due to the high labor cost and human errors. Opto-electronic sorting is an automated sorting process of waste materials in replacement of manual sorting, based on waste particle characteristics such as brightness, transparency, color, shape, and size. 

This trend toward increases in automation has a number of collateral effects. In laboratories in which protocols are standardized automated systems can increase accuracy, decrease personnel costs, and enhance quality control (QC). Computerized systems are generally immune from the small slippages of attention and care that result in minor but sometimes cascading human errors through the boredom of repetitive tasks. On the other hand, computers are prone to much more spectacular errors—for example, to one-ofif recording of test results from a long line of samples. But while these errors are dramatic in scope, with effective QC efforts they are generally detectable and hence correctable. The insidious minor corruptions produced by humans are much more likely to continue undetected. 

In this introduction, we have presented an overview of the benefits of applying the technique of SFE to the area of food analysis. There are substantially reduced costs derived from use of SFE versus traditional extraction in the areas of solvent purchase costs, solvent disposal costs, reduced labour charges, and even less need to repeat experiments due to reduced human errors in the overall analytical scheme. Moreover, productivity can be improved and the use of environmentally-unfriendly solvents is greatly reduced. In the rest of this chapter we will explore the fundamental principles of SFE in more detail, discuss some of the aspects of current SFE instrumentation, present a number of examples of applying SFE to food samples, and briefly summarise some hints for methods development. 

GMP is the enforcement of rigorous control of purity and consistency of the production of any substance that is to be administered to a human. It is designed to avoid human error that could lead to contamination of the final product. It does not apply to process research, but does when any process on any scale is used for the preparation of any batch of drug for clinical use. It is the responsibility of the manufacturer, under potential scrutiny from the regulatory authorities, and adds dramatically to the cost of the process, particularly at the small-scale early stages. 

This allows to say that the goal of system simplification of the MRX is achieved. The simplification of the systems leads to improvement of economy and reliability through the reductions of plant construction and maintenance cost, the human error during maintenance, and the probabilities of equipment failure. 

Initial Costs Demolition Costs Maintenance Costs Chances of Failure-in Limit States random hazards human error concept deficiency Direct costs of each type of failure Indirect consequences of each type of failure (e.g, H.A.C., boxgirders)... 

These safety interlocks are suggested to minimize consequences arising from human errors and damage to key/costly equipment. 

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