Historical Beginnings

The historical development of the separator and of the lead-acid storage battery are inseparably tied together. When referring to lead-acid batteries today one primarily thinks of starter batteries or forklift traction batteries, but the original applications were quite different. 

The very first functioning lead-acid battery was presented by Gaston Plante in 1860 spirally would lead sheets served as electrodes, separated by a layer of felt — the first separator of a lead-acid battery [12]. This assembly in a cylindrical vessel in 10% sulfuric acid had only a low capacity, which prompted Plante to undertake a variety of experiments resulting in many improvements that are still connected with 

Until about 1880 the lead-acid battery was exclusively then subject of scientific study. Possible commercial utilization lacked suitable charging processes secondary cells had to be charged by means of the primary cells already known at that time. 

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Cosmochemistry is defined, and its relationship to geochemistry is explained. We describe the historical beginnings of cosmochemistry, and the lines of research that coalesced into the field of cosmochemistry are discussed. We then briefly introduce the tools of cosmochemistry and the datasets that have been produced by these tools. The relationships between cosmochemistry and geochemistry, on the one hand, and astronomy, astrophysics, and geology, on the other, are considered. 

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy has a considerable history of being applied to the issue of coal structure. However, as a historical beginning, the structural types in coal were first determined by means of statistical structural analysis (Francis, 1961). One of the first methods to supersede the statistical methods was based on proton (XH) magnetic resonance, which provided a quantitative distribution of the hydrogen types in coal (Brown and Ladner, 1960 Bartle, 1988 Maciel et al., 1993). 

The guiding principles subscribed to by many in the field are the four Rs. The historical beginnings of this concept date to 1959 when Russell and Burch first proposed what have come to be called the three Rs of humane animal use in research replacement, reduction, and refinement. These three principles have served as the conceptual basis for reconsideration of animal use in research. To these has been added a fourth principle responsibility. 

The CW agents of today had their historical beginnings in World War I (WW I). While it is estimated that over 3,000 chemicals were studied for use as possible CW agents during WW I, only 45 of these are reported to have been used in actual combat. Only about a dozen of these came to be used in quantity, however, because the remainder either proved ineffective, or became obsolete as newer agents were developed. Research and development (R D) of new CW agents continued after the war. As a result, only two agents of those that had been either used (mustard) or... 

Let s begin by tracing the history of benzene its origin and its structure Many of the terms we use including aromaticity itself are of historical origin We 11 begin with the discovery of benzene... 

Historically, the first spectroscopic studies involved characterizing the emission of visible light from the sun, from flames, and from salts added to flames. Our survey of spectroscopy, however, begins with absorption because it is the more important technique in modern analytical spectroscopy. 

An excellent historical account of the beginning of transmission electron microscopy in North America is available (22). 

Aluminum prices have historically been more stable than other nonferrous metals. Beginning iu the 1970s, however, aluminum prices have fluctuated as shown iu Table 13 (30). These fluctuations reflect increased energy costs as well as increased costs of raw materials. Improvements in production processes as well as a rebalancing of demand and supply are expected to stabilize aluminum prices in the future. 

The use of fragrant substances has been continuous, and the use of Hpids or emoUients for anointing is fully documented in historical writings. However, it is probably not justifiable to identify the recipes passed on from antiquity as cosmetics. The compositions based on folklore and mysticism were replaced by more scientifically acceptable products beginning about 1875. The first edition of a handbook of cosmetic chemistry pubHshed in 1920 included a foreword noting that scientific cosmetic chemistry did not exist prior to that pubHcation (1). A few years later, texts on cosmetic chemistry and other formularies became available (2). 

By the time the next overview of electrical properties of polymers was published (Blythe 1979), besides a detailed treatment of dielectric properties it included a chapter on conduction, both ionic and electronic. To take ionic conduction first, ion-exchange membranes as separation tools for electrolytes go back a long way historically, to the beginning of the twentieth century a polymeric membrane semipermeable to ions was first used in 1950 for the desalination of water (Jusa and McRae 1950). This kind of membrane is surveyed in detail by Strathmann (1994). Much more recently, highly developed polymeric membranes began to be used as electrolytes for experimental rechargeable batteries and, with particular success, for fuel cells. This important use is further discussed in Chapter 11. 

For historical and regulatory reasons, a PSA of a nuclear power plant begins with the system analysis to determine the ways that an upset condition could occur, its probability... 

Chapter 10 covers another important field with a great overlap with CA neural networks. Beginning with a short historical survey of what is really an independent field, chapter 10 discusses the Hopfield model, stochastic nets, Boltzman machines, and multi-layered perceptrons. 

Historical Background.—Relativistic quantum mechanics had its beginning in 1900 with Planck s formulation of the law of black body radiation. Perhaps its inception should be attributed more accurately to Einstein (1905) who ascribed to electromagnetic radiation a corpuscular character the photons. He endowed the photons with an energy and momentum hv and hv/c, respectively, if the frequency of the radiation is v. These assignments of energy and momentum for these zero rest mass particles were consistent with the postulates of relativity. It is to be noted that zero rest mass particles can only be understood within the framework of relativistic dynamics. 

Historically, the amidinate story begins with the discovery of N,N,N -tris(trimethylsilyl)benzamidine, PhC( = NSiMe3)[N(SiMe3)2], by Sanger. The compound was prepared by the reaction of benzonitrile with LiN(SiMe3)2 followed by treatment with chlorotrimethylsilane. The method was later... 

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