Historic monuments

Sulfur dioxide emissions may affect building stone and ferrous and nonferrous metals. Sulfurous acid, formed from the reaction of sulfur dioxide with moisture, accelerates the corrosion of iron, steel, and zinc. Sulfur oxides react with copper to produce the green patina of copper sulfate on the surface of the copper. Acids in the form of gases, aerosols, or precipitation may chemically erode building materials such as marble, limestone, and dolomite. Of particular concern is the chemical erosion of historical monuments and works of art. Sulfurous and sulfuric acids formed from sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide when they react with moisture may also damage paper and leather. 

With some exceptions (such as theme parks and festivals), the images of tourism destinations rarely portray a world full of other travellers. In particular, there are few promotional images of the waiting lines at passport control, of the delays in accessing historical monuments or more simply the press of other people who also require food, drinks and toilets. 

In any case, macroarchaeometry provides understanding of the fundamental mechanisms in historical monuments these mechanisms manifest themselves as specific problems. Problems such as accelerated degradation or long-term chemical reactions leading to compositional change are explained and can therefore be dealt with more successfully. 

Keywords Preservation of Historical Monuments / Stone Consolidants / Hydro-phobation / (3-Alkoxypropyl)triethoxysilanes / (3-AJkoxypropyl)-diethoxymethylsilanes... 

Founded in 1670, Charleston is one of America s oldest cities. The entire downtown is a historical monument with horse-drawn carriages and cobblestone streets. Despite its old, historic feel, Charleston is the only city in South Carolina to have a considerable gay scene, and its liberal area is home to a large number of small cafes and coffeehouses. 

The damage done to historical monuments is mainly related to fine stone carving, as the outer layers of the stone flake off. This process, called sulfation , involves the replacement of calcium carbonate by calcium sulfate, which is both more water soluble (Ksp= 5.0 x 10 mol L ) v/v (Ksp= 6.0 x 10 mol L ) and has less structural strength... 

Zeine C and Grobe J 1997 Diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform DRIFT spectroscopy in the preservation of historical monuments studies on salt migration Mikrochim. Acta 125 279-82... 

City of Oxford Royal Commission on Historical Monuments. His Majesty s Stationery Office, London, 1939. 

Fig. 19-1. These workers are standing outside the 8-Ball, a 1-million-liter sphere used for testing static aerosols of biological agent preparations during the United States s offensive biological warfare program. The building enclosing the 8 Ball and its supporting infrastructure were destroyed by fire in 1974. The sphere remains today as a historical monument at Fort Detrick, Frederick, Maryland. Photograph Public Affairs Office, Fort Detrick, Frederick, Md. circa 1968.

The Treaty of Washington of 1935 (also known as the Roerich Pact) provided that the historic monuments, museums, scientific, artistic, educational and cultural institutions shall be considered as neutral and as such respected and protected by belligerents . The Treaty also provided for cultural property to be marked with a distinctive symbol. Signed by 21 American Governments, the treaty is still in force in most parts of North, Central and South America. 

Article 8 confers jurisdiction on the International Criminal Court for War Crimes . This includes under Article 8(2)(b)(ix) (international armed conflicts) and under Article 8(2)(e)(iv) (non-intemational armed conflicts) intentionally directing attacks against buildings dedicated to rehgion, education, arts, science or charitable purposes, historic monuments, hospitals and places where the sick and wounded are collected provided they are militeuy objectives . 

A comprehensive study of this site is about to be published by the Department of Historic Monuments of the Mexican Government. It will give a fuller periodization than the above. 

Sadat-Shojai, M. Ershad-Langroudi, A., Polymeric Coatings for Protection of Historic Monuments Opportunities and Challenges. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2009,... 

Implementation of Experimentally Developed Methodology for Seismic Strengthening and Repair of Historic Monuments... 

The specific nature of the structural systems and the limited possibilities for higher resistance and deformabiUty of the main materials constituting the historic monuments prove the need for a strengthening methodology that will comply with the specific characteristics of these monuments (Danieli et al. 2008 Martelli 2009 Tassios et al. 2007 Carydis et al. 1996 De Canio et al. 2008). 

The shaking table testing of a large scale model of a historic monument presented herein is a unique example in world practice. The knowledge gained, therefore, is valuable and necessary for the seismic strengthening of important cultural-historic structures, particularly in cases where the effect of interventions upon the authenticity of the monument is considered a priority. 

As in design of new structures, in repair and strengthening of damaged historic monuments or preventive seismic strengthening of stmctures of vital importance, it is necessary to define the design seismic criteria as follows ... 

In addition to this, in each intervention to be carried out for such type of structures, certain principles and rules must be respected. Among these, as mentioned before, the main principle is to provide maximum safety with minimal intervention. For each historic monument, the design criteria are defined on the basis of special conditions that depend on the historic, architectural and artistic value of the structure, the seismic hazard and the possibility of application of a corresponding measure for repair and strengthening. 

After the realization of the project on Byzantine churches, IZIIS became partner of the National Conservation Center in R. Macedonia, which enabled direct application of the unique knowledge gained in actual conditions and for specific historic monuments. Presented in the following are the three most characteristic examples of apphcation of the developed methodology. 

The proposed and experimentally verified methodology was successfully implemented in the process of reconstruction and seismic strengthening of real historic monuments. The design process described in this paper is a useful tool when facing the complex problem of protection and conservation of constructions that form part of our cultural heritage. 

The design of adhesive mortars was based on binders of either hydrate lime-metakaolin or natural hydraulie lime, with the aim of formulating a complex system characterized by the highest compatibility. Nowadays, both hydrate lime-metakaolin and natural hydraulic lime mortars are widely used in the field of restoration and conservation of architectural monuments, due to their capability to enhance the chemical, physical, structural and mechanical compatibility with historical building materials (stones, bricks and mortars) (Rosario 2009). This compatibility is a very critical prerequisite for the optimum performance of conservation mortars, considering the damage caused to historic monuments dming the past decades, due to the extensive use of cement-based composites. 

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