Gymnodinium dinoflagellates, toxicity

Anderson, D., Paralytic shellfish poisoning in northwest Spain the toxicity of the dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum, Toxicon, 27, 6, 665, 1989. 

Perhaps the most unusual marine metabolites from the Caribbean are con lex polyketides, called brevetoxins, produced by a toxic dinoflagellate, Gymnodinium breve (Chart 7.3.FA/PO). 

Doblin, M.A., Blackburn, S.I., and Hallegraeff, G.M. (1999) Growth and biomass stimulation of the toxic dinoflagellate Gymnodinium by dissolved organic substances. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 236, 33-47. 

Johnsen, G, and Sakshaug, E. (1993) Bio-optical characteristics and photoadaptive responses in the toxic and bloom-forming dinoflagellates Gymnodinium aureolum, G. galatheanum, and two strains of Prorocentrum minimum. J. Phycol. 29, 627-642. 

Baden, D.G., and Mende, T.J. 1982. Toxicity of two strains from the Florida red tide marine dinoflagellate, Gymnodinium breve. Toxicon 20, 457-461. 

Palomares-Garcia, R., BustiUos-Guzman, J., Band-Schmidt, C. J., Lopez-Cortez, D., and Luckas, B. (2006). Effect of the toxic dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum on the grazing, egg production, and hatching success of the copepod Acartia clausi. Cienc. Mar. 32(1B), 111—119. 

Only one naturally occurring azide has been reported to date. 6-Azidotetrazolo[5,l-u]phthalazine (6) was isolated, by chloroform extraction and subsequent chromatographic purification, from unialgal cultures of Gymnodinium breve (Ptychodiscus brevis), a dinoflagellate responsible for the production of toxic red tides along the Gulf Coast of Florida [16]. The structure of this extraordinary secondary metabolite was determined by... 

An extract of the digestive glands of P. yessoensis, collected fiom the aforementioned location, upon fractionation gave a new polyether toxin, yessotoxin[114]. The structure of which was determined by spectroscopic methods (92) and has the chemical characteristics of dinoflagellate toxins isolated from Gymnodinium breve (93). Recently, toxic mussels collected from Ban try Bay, Ireland, were found to contain dinophysistoxin-2 (DTX2) [115] (94). 

Evens, T.J., Kirkpatrick, G.J., Mille, D.R, Chapman, D.J., and Schofield, O.M.E. Photophysiological responses of the toxic red-tide dinoflagellate Gymnodinium breve (Dinophyceae) nnder natnral snnlight. J. Plank. Res., 23, 1177-1193, 2001. 

Freeberg, L.R., Marshall, A., and Michael, H. Interrelationships of Gymnodinium breve (Florida red-tide) within the phytoplankton community, in Toxic Dinoflagellate Blooms, Taylor, F.J.R. and Seliger,H.H., Eds., Elsevier North Holland, 1979, pp. 139-144. 

Episodes of massive marine animal kills and noxious ocean vapors have been associated with discolored water in the Gulf of Mexico since the earliest records. In the late 1940s, two seminal reports commenced research on brevetoxins the first identified the dinoflagellate Gymnodinium breve as the micro-organism responsible for discolored water and fish kills and fhe second demonstrated that when vapors of water containing the organism were introduced to volunteers, it caused the characteristic respiratory irritation. Nearly two decades later, a toxic activity was isolated from... 

In 1947, Davis [13] identified the causative organism of these toxic blooms as the unarmored dinoflagellate Gymnodinium brevis (later Ptychodiscus brevis, now G. breve), and a decade later, Starr [14] suggested that a lethal toxin elucidated by G. breve was the cause of the fish kills. With this knowledge came the need for detection methods to better understand the ecological and public health implications of brevetoxins in the environment. 

Baden, D.G., Mende, T.J. and Block, R.E., Two similar toxins isolated from Gymnodinium breve, in Toxic Dinoflagellate Blooms, Taylor, D.L. and Seliger, FI.FI., Eds., Elsevier, New York, 1979, pp. 327-334. 

In 1993, extracts of oysters (Tiostrea chilensis) dredged from the Foveaux Strait, New Zealand, showed unusual toxicity in routine bioassays for lipophilic toxins [1,2]. At the same time, a bloom of a dinoflagellate was observed in the affected area, which was classified as Gymnodinium cf. mikimotoi... 

C32H45NO4, Mr 507.70, amorphous solid, [a]o -10.4° (CH3OH), a shellfish toxin, isolated from New Zealand oysters Tiostrea chilensis) and the dinoflagellate Gymnodinium cf. mikimotoi. G. shows potent ichtyo-toxicity and is structurally related to the pinnatoxins. LU. Tetrahedron Lett. 38,4889 (1997). - [CAS 173792-58-0]... 

It is not known with certainty that benthic dinoflagellates are the exclusive source of ciguatera. Similar active toxic compounds have been extracted from the motile dinoflagellates Gymnodinium sanguineum and Gonyaulax polyhedra... 

Sako Y, Yoshida T, Uchida A, Arakawa O, Noguchi T, Ishida Y (2001) Purification and characterization of a sulfotransferase specific to N-21 of saxitoxin and gonyautoxin 2 + 3 from the toxic dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum (Dinophyceae). J Phycol 37 1044-1051... 

Amin, S.A., Kiipper, F.C., Green, D.H., Harris, W.R., and Carrano, C.J. (2007) Boron binding by a siderophore isolated from marine bacteria associated with the toxic dinoflagellate Gymnodinium catenatum. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 129, 478-479. 

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