Glucose - continued

Excreted Glucose can only appear in the urine when the two lines drawn so far begin to separate so that less is reabsorbed than is filtered. This happens at 11 mmol.l-1 plasma glucose concentration. The line then rises parallel to the filtered line as plasma glucose continues to rise. 

In the advanced stages of fasting, ketone bodies cease to provide substantial metabolic fuel for skeletal and heart muscle and kidneys. They are used almost exclusively by the brain, which also continues to use glucose, albeit in drastically lowered amounts. Muscle, heart, and kidneys depend exclusively on fatty acids for their subsistence. Glucose continues to be used exclusively by the... 

Figure 3. Stylistic presentation of the course of lipid accumulation by an oleaginous microorganism. The concentration of nitrogen (NH3) in the medium is adjusted so that it becomes exhausted after the first 24 hours growth after this point, the cells enter the lipid accumulation phase in which the excess carbon (e.g., glucose) continues to be assimilated by the cells, and because there is no new cell synthesis because of the lack of nitrogen, the surplus carbon is converted into lipid, which functions as a reserve of carbon and energy for the cells.

Fuel Oxidation. During fasting, glucose continues to be oxidized by glucose-dependent tissues such as the brain and red blood cells, and fatty acids are oxidized by tissues such as muscle and liver. Muscle and most other tissues oxidize fatty acids completely to CO2 and H2O. However, the liver partially oxidizes fatty acids to smaller molecules called ketone bodies, which are released into the blood. Muscle, kidney, and certain other tissues derive energy from completely oxidizing ketone bodies in the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. 

Figure 3, shows one representative case of three days continuous record of an insulin-dependent diabetic treated with continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion. The continuous irronitoring of glucose concentration disclosed a day-by-day variation of gjlycemia in diabetics. Then a large research activity started to miniaturize the system in order to obtain a real wearable artificial pancreas. The first step was miniaturizing the sensor. Today we have on the market several small instruments able to monitor glucose continuously up to one week. ... 

Application of ci5-hydroxylation to 3,4-unsaturated disaccharide precursors led to a series of disaccharides in which both sugar units were optically active. Thus, the first semisynthetic disaccharides prepared by David and co-workers were a-D- and a- -L-altropyranosyl-(l- 3)-D-glucoses. Continuation of this woric extended the number of hexopyranosyl-(l— 3)-D-glucoses synthesized with units of the a-D-allo -L-altro, and a-D-galacto configuration. 

Z lONNaOH Corn steep liquor, glucose Continuous repeat-batch biofilm complex (yeast extract) COj sparging 73 0.69 8.8 [18]... 

Z N/A Glucose Continuous membrane cell recycle complex (yeast extract) CO2 sparging N/A 0.77 6.63 [19]... 

ATCC53488 2MNa2C03 Glucose Continuous (membrane-bioreactor-electrodialysis) complex (yeast extract and peptone) CO2 sparging 83 1.35 10.4 [31]... 

Draw the structure of lactose, which is broken down by the enzyme lactase to give equimolar amounts of j8-galactose and jS-glucose. Linkage occurs between carbon atom 1 of galactose and 4 of glucose. continued... 

The immediate surroundings, the matrix, of any sensor affect mass transfer of educts and products from and to the sensor. Also, endogenous and exogenous interferents as well as ambient effects may lead to significant unspecific sensor response. These effects have successfully been tackled by BGM sensors (see, e.g., [297]). CGM sensors, which need to measure glucose continuously over days, have to tackle additional issues which complicate accurate, precise, and reproducible measurement over time. Issues will be listed and discussed in subsequent paragraphs. 

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