Gene transcription and translation

Over the past years it has become apparent that the cell type is an important determinant of the extent of oxidative stress that may occur. Both the latent activities of cytoprotective enzymes in specific cell types, as well as the ability of the cell to respond rapidly to an oxidative insult by the upregulation of such enzymes, will be important predeterminants of the fate of the cell. Table 10.1 shows the concentrations of both antioxidants and cytoprotective enzymes in a variety of tissues. While the liver is well provided with antioxidant protection, the brain has very low levels, so the ability to respond rapidly to an oxidative insult by upregulation of gene transcription and translation will be an important determinant of survival or death. Cells such as hepatocytes have high levels of expression and... 

Foreign genes, transcription and translation of, 12 517 Foreign patent rights, enforcement of, 18 190... 

A variety of peptides are utilized in the nervous system as neurotransmitters. Unlike other neurotransmitters, which can be synthesized in various parts of the neuron like the axon terminals, neuropeptides are produced by gene transcription and translation. They may colocalize and be coreleased with ACh, monoamines, or amino acid neurotransmitters. Their receptors are metabotropic and may work through a variety of effector mechanisms. Neuropeptides are formed and degraded by a variety of peptidase enzymes. 

Kimball SR, Jefferson LS. 2006. New functions for amino adds Effects on gene transcription and translation. Am J Clin Nutr 83 500S-507S. 

Proteins are ubiquitous. Not only are gene transcription and translation carried out by proteins, but other proteins are involved notably in muscle contraction examples are myosin and actin. Still others, for example, are those called the histone proteins, repressor proteins, and proteins in the ribosomes. 

There have been recent reports that NO may modulate gene transcription and translation. For example, in neurons NO potentiates the effect of calcium on c-fos promoter-linked gene expression (Peunova and Enikolopov,... 

As previously described, irreversible enzyme inhibition is defined as time-dependent inactivation of the enzyme, which implies that the enzyme has, in some way or form, been permanently modified, because it can no longer carry out its function. This modification is the result of a covalent bond being formed with the inhibitor and some amino acid residue in the protein. Furthermore, this bond is extremely stable and, for all practical purposes, is not hydrolyzed fo give back the enzyme in its original state or structure. In most examples of irreversible inhibition, a new enzyme must be generated through gene transcription and translation for the enzyme to continue its normal catalytic action. Basically, there are two types of irreversible enzyme inhibitors, the affinity labels or active site-directed irreversible inhibitors and the mechanism-based irreversible enzyme inactivators. 

Protein phosphorylation is involved in numerous biochemical processes. These include the regulation of metabolic pathways, membrane transport, muscle contraction, hormone response, photosynthesis, cell division, gene transcription and translation, intracellular signalling and brain processes such as learning and memory [6,6a, 12]. 

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) has been the most extensively studied of the human herpesviruses owing to its ability to easily infect cells in vitro to produce infectious virus. As with all herpesviruses, HSV encodes a number of proteins for efficient viral gene expression, viral DN A replication, and the shutoff of cellular gene transcription and translation [53], These virally expressed proteins do not function in isolation but associate with a variety of cellular and viral proteins. Furthermore, many have exhibited multiple different functions. In an effort to understand the biology of HSV and the function of its proteins, a proteomics approach has been used to study a critical viral transactivator (ICP27), the alteration of the cellular translation machinery, and components of the viral replication complex, which will be reviewed here. 

RNA. Epigenetic modification of the chromatin alters the capacity of certain nucleosomes to unwind, thereby preventing gene transcription and translation. 

One underlying concept to such integrative work is that the amount and activity of all enzymes and hormones are genetically regulated, from immediate gene transcription and translation, to heritability of variations in hormone and enzyme synthesis and secretion. Some examples may be found in... 

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