Functional reduction

Among philosophers of mind, it is common to assume that at least some mental properties are functional in nature (Putnam 1975 Jacob 1997 Kim 1992,1998 van Gulick 2001 Block 1997,2007, forthcoming). Basically, a functional property is a property that is to be characterized, or that is characterizable in functional terms. The idea that functional properties are functional in nature, or that they are role-properties raises subtle issues about the nature of dispositional properties, their connection to multiple realizability and to functionalism. Suffice it to say that on all these views, a functional characterization is, to some extent, transparent with respect to the so described property s nature (for a discussion, see van Riel 2012). Here are two ways to conceive of characterizations in functional terms. The first is obtained from Lewis (1972), the second can be found in Block (2007), building on Putnam (1975). To give an idea of how to conceive of functional properties, it will prove useful to talk freely about theoretical terms. Theoretical terms are conceived of as terms that can be defined by the Ramsey-sentence of the theory in which they occur. A functional characterization of a property is, then, a characterization of a property in terms of the relevant Ramsey-sentence, obtained from a psychological theory. 

The first idea underlies Lewis proposal to describe functional reduction. On Lewis interpretation (Lewis 1972), from the statement of a psychological (folk-) theory, schematically T[t], with theoretical (in our case mental) terms t, we can obtain a modified Ramsey-sentence by replacing the theoretical terms by variables within the scope of existential (uniquely quantifying) quantifiers, schematically 3iX T[x] (with 3iX Fx -o- 3x, Vy, (Fx Fy y = x)). From this, we can construct a characterization of the mental terms occurring in this theory. To give an example, which is in the spirit of Lewis, we can characterize a singular mental term a as follows, ignoring unique quantification ( / , H2 stand for input-state terms and oj 02 ... for output-state terms)  

we have characterized the referent and, maybe, the meaning of a referential term. The referent is the property described by the modified Ramsey-sentence on the right-hand side of the identity sign. Ned Block relies on an alternative interpretation, focusing on definitions of predicates or open sentences rather than characterizations of terms. Block writes  

To get the Ramsey sentence of T, replace the mental-state terms [... ] by variables, and prefix an existential quantifier for each variable 3Fi. .. 3F T(Fi. .. F , fi. .. L, 

a predicate is defined (and the Ramsey-sentence schema is slightly changed by adding the schematic expression x has Fn ). In contrast, we gave 

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While the above XPS results give the impression, that the electrochemical interface and the metal vacuum interface behave similarly, fundamental differences become evident when work function changes during metal deposition are considered. During metal deposition at the metal vacuum interface the work function of the sample surface usually shifts from that of the bare substrate to that of the bulk deposit. In the case of Cu deposition onto Pt(l 11) a work function reduction from 5.5 eV to 4.3 eV is observed during deposition of one monolayer of copper [96], Although a reduction of work function with UPD metal coverage is also observed at the electrochemical interface, the absolute values are totally different. For Ag deposition on Pt (see Fig. 31)... 

Aliphatic ketone, methylene function reduction, 6-phenylhex-l-ene, 131-132 Alkane reduction alcohols, 12-27 allyl alcohols, 24 benzyl alcohols, 18-24 cyclopropylcarbinols, 17-18 metal-complexed alcohols,... 

Types of compounds are arranged according to the following system hydrocarbons and basic heterocycles hydroxy compounds and their ethers mercapto compounds, sulfides, disulfides, sulfoxides and sulfones, sulfenic, sulfinic and sulfonic acids and their derivatives amines, hydroxylamines, hydrazines, hydrazo and azo compounds carbonyl compounds and their functional derivatives carboxylic acids and their functional derivatives and organometallics. In each chapter, halogen, nitroso, nitro, diazo and azido compounds follow the parent compounds as their substitution derivatives. More detail is indicated in the table of contents. In polyfunctional derivatives reduction of a particular function is mentioned in the place of the highest functionality. Reduction of acrylic acid, for example, is described in the chapter on acids rather than functionalized ethylene, and reduction of ethyl acetoacetate is discussed in the chapter on esters rather than in the chapter on ketones. 

Unlabeled Uses Treatment of edema associated with CHF, liver cirrhosis, and nephrotic syndrome treatment of hypertension reduces lithium-induced polyuria, slows pulmonary function reduction in cystic fibrosis... 

Patients with Acute or Chronic Renat impairment In patients with reduced renal function, reduction in dosage is recommended (see Table)... 

An efficient synthesis of ( )-quebrachamine is based on the construction of a suitable precursor via ring cleavage of an a-diketone monothioketal (810) (80JCS(P1)457). This monothioketal, available from 4-ethoxycarbonylcyclohexanone ethylene ketal, was fragmented to the dithianyl half ester (811) with sodium hydride in the presence of water. Reaction of (811) with tryptamine and DCC provided an amide which was converted to the stereoisomeric lactams (812) on hydrolysis of the dithiane function. Reduction of either the a- or /3-ethyl isomer with lithium aluminum hydride followed by conversion of the derived amino alcohol to its mesylate produced the amorphous quaternary salt (813). On reduction with sodium in liquid ammonia, the isomeric salts provided ( )-quebrachamine (814 Scheme 190). 

Electrochemical functionalization - reductive coupling of diazonium salts The electrochemical functionalization of SWCNTs, deposited on an Si/Si02 substrate, with 4-nitrophenyl groups succeeded by the reduction of 4-nitrobenzene-diazonium salt in a mini-electrochemical cell with platinum counter and (pseu-do-)reference electrodes. A probe needle was used to make contact with one of the Au-Pd bonding pads on the substrate and allowed the application of an electric potential to the electrode (-1.3 V vs. Pt for >30 s) and to any SWCNTs underneath the electrode [177b]. 

P-Aminotetralins 88 were obtained after reduction of the imine functionality, reductive removal of the chiral auxiliary and deprotection and hydrogenolysis of the hydrazino group. The ee of the p-aminotetralins were determined by HPLC analysis after derivatisation of the amines with (R)-phenylethylisocyanate. 

A similar process occurred when the double bond bore a carboxylic function. Reduction of a-acylaminoacrylic acids with the catalytic system (— )-(diop)-Rh(I) allowed an asymmetric hydrogenation with optical yields ranging from 70 to 80%192 (Scheme 131). 

It is reasonable to choose a search vector p that will be a descent direction, that is, a direction leading to function reduction. A descent direction p is defined as one along which the directional derivative is negative ... 

Xiong, Y., Washio, I., Chen, J., Cai, H., Li, Z.-Y. and Xia, Y. (2006). Poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) A dual functional reductant and stabilizer for the facile synthesis of noble metal nanoplates in aqueous solutions. Langmuir 22 8563-8570. 

B. Eight-Membered Ring-Preserved Defunctionalizations, Functionalizations, Reductions, and Oxidations... 

Absorption of quinidine is complete and rapid. Peak serum concentrations are reached in 1.5 to 2 hours after oral intake, unless the slow-release preparation (quinidine gluconate) is used. Peak plasma concentrations are attained 4 to 5 hours after quinidine gluconate administration, and the trough concentration occurs 1 to 2 hours after the next administration. Once absorbed, quinidine is 80% protein bound. Metabolism of quinidine is by CyP 3A4. Clearance of quinidine depends on adequate hepatic and renal function. Reduction of either of these two functions results in accumulation of the drug. Renal clearance is a function of urine pH. If the urine is alkaline or if a patient has renal tubular acidosis, clearance is reduced. 

Sochman et al.269 ISLAND N-acetyl-cysteine administration in patients with AMI subjected to thrombolysis 30 Infarct size, LV function Reduction in infarct size and improved LV function after 2-weeks... 

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