Formulation Watts

Nickel. Nickel plating continues to be very important. Many plating baths have been formulated, but most of the nickel plating is done in either Watts baths or sulfamate baths. Watts baths contain sulfate and chloride nickel salts along with boric acid, and were first proposed in 1916 (111). Nickel was first plated from sulfamate in 1938 (112) and patented in 1943 (108). The process was brought to market in 1950 (113). Typical bath compositions and conditions are shown in Table 14. 

The mechanical properties of Watts deposits from normal, purified solutions depend upon the solution formulation, pH, current density and solution temperature. These parameters are deliberately varied in industrial practice in order to select at will particular values of deposit hardness, strength, ductility and internal stress. Solution pH has little effect on deposit properties over the range pH 1 0-5-0, but with further increase to pH 5 -5, hardness, strength and internal stress increase sharply and ductility falls. With the pH held at 3-0, the production of soft, ductile deposits with minimum internal stress is favoured by solution temperatures of 50-60°C and a current density of 3-8 A/dm in a solution with 25% of the nickel ions provided by nickel chloride. Such deposits have a coarse-grained structure, whereas the harder and stronger deposits produced under other conditions have a finer grain size. A comprehensive study of the relationships between plating variables and deposit properties was made by the American Electroplaters Society and the results for Watts and other solutions reported... 

The liquids used in these early formulations were 50% solutions of orthophosphoric acid, often containing aluminium and zinc. Chemical analyses were published between 1904 and 1972 (Voelker, 1916a Greve, 1913 Watts, 1915 Paffenbarger, Schoonover Souder, 1938 Axelsson, 1964 Wilson et al, 1972). 

Subsequently, Watts performed a parameter estimation by using the data from all temperatures simultaneously and by employing the formulation of the rate constants as in Equation 16.19. The parameter values that they found as well as their standard errors are reported in Table 16.18. It is noted that they found that the residuals from the fit were well behaved except for two at 375°C. These residuals were found to account for 40% of the residual sum of squares of deviations between experimental data and calculated values. 

Watts (1994) dealt with the issue of confidence interval estimation when estimating parameters in nonlinear models. He proceeded with the reformulation of Equation 16.19 because the pre-exponential parameter estimates "behaved highly nonlinearly." The rate constants were formulated as follows... 

You are asked to verify the calculations of Watts (1994) using the Gauss-Newton method. You are also asked to determine by how much the condition number of matrix A is improved when the centered formulation is used. 

The IR intensity is defined as the amount of optical power emitted from a source in to unit solid angle and is expressed in watts per steradian. The IR efficiency is a product of f R intensity and burning time per gram of formulation. 

The quality of a smoke produced by a smoke formulation can be measured in terms of its TOP under standard laboratory conditions. The TOP of a smoke is obtained by dividing the volume of smoke (in cubic meters) produced per kilogram of material by the standard smoke (smoke layer [in meters] necessary to obscure the filament of a 40-watt lamp) and is expressed by Equation 5.27 ... 

THERMOCOUPLE. In 1821, Seebeck discovered that an electric current flows in a continuous circuit of two metals if the two junctions are at different temperatures, as shown in Fig. 1. A and B are two metals, T and T are the temperatures of the junctions. I is the thermoelectric current. A is thermoelectncally positive to B if 7i is the colder junction. In 1834, Peltier found that current flowing across a junction of dissimilar metals causes heat to be absorbed or liberated. The direction of heat flow reverses if current flow is reversed. Rate of heat flow is proportional to current but depends upon bodi temperature and the materials at die junction. Heat transfer rate is given by PI, where P is the Peltier coefficient in watts per ampere, or die Peltier emf in volts. Many studies of the characteristics of thermocouples have led to the formulation of three fundamental laws ... 

Wan, M.T., R.G. Watts, and D.J. Moul (1988). Evaluation of the acute toxicity to juvenile Pacific salmonids of hexazinone and its formulated products Pronone 10G Velpar L, and their carriers. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 41 609-616. 

The deposit of nickel on top of the copper provides the essential resistance of the system to corrosion. Generally it is deposited from a solution based on the familiar Watts formulation—300 g 1 1 nickel sulphate, 30 g 1 1 nickel chloride, and 40 g 1 1 boric acid—and as in the copper processes the solutions contain additives to help give a bright deposit with good levelling characteristics. 

We have chosen to follow Watts [24] and discuss chemical and biological transformation processes in the same section. Watts notes that, although this approach is somewhat nontraditional, it is advantageous in that understanding of the abiotic chemical reactions serves as a conceptual basis for understanding the biochemical reactions (which are essentially the same except for the fact that the biochemical reactions are mediated by microorganisms). Where a reaction is predominantly abiotic or biotic, it will be noted in the discussion. In this section, the fundamentals of each chemical or biological reaction will be discussed, and model formulations for the reaction kinetics presented. 

Dyer, A. M., Hinchcliffe, M., Watts, P., Castile, J., Jabbal-Gill, I., Nankervis, R., Smith, A., and Ilium, L. (2002), Nasal delivery of insulin using novel chitosan based formulations A comparative study in two animal models between simple chitosan formulations and chitosan nanoparticles, Pharm. Res., 19, 998-1008. 

Despite its efficacy, Sandia foam has a number of drawbacks for field use by the soldier. First, it must be stored as separate components, which would require a rapid, personal, on-site mixing chamber for combining the two solutions. Second, the presence of hydrogen peroxide, a strong oxidizing agent, precludes its use near the eye, and would create much discomfort if used in a wound (Watt et al., 2004). To partially address these concerns, Sandia developed the formulation DF-200, which in part contains less hydrogen peroxide and surfactant. 

UvlmerTM 530 and the other members of the UvlmerTM series may be cured with benzoin ether type photoinitiators and with diethoxy acetophenone. Table III presents data on the cure speed of UvlmerTM 530 formulated with butyl benzoin ether. These data were obtained in air without the use of Inert blanketing. Films of 3 mil thickness were irradiated on a moving belt using a 5000 watt Addalux uv lamp (Berkey Photo, Inc.) focussed on one linear Inch, This Is a low pressure lamp Incorporated In an experimental unit. Faster cure speeds (up to 200 ft. per mlnute/lamp) were obtained in later studies with a unit employing two medium pressure, 200 watts/llnear inch Hanovia lamps. 

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