Forcings, climate

Lacis, A. A., and M. I. Mishchenko, Climate Forcing, Climate Sensitivity, and Climate Response A Radiative Modeling Perspective on Atmospheric Aerosols, in Aerosol Forcing of Climate (R. J. Charlson and J. Heintzenberg, Eds.), Wiley, New York, 1995. 

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, S cientific Assessment of Climate Change, Section 2, Kadiative Forcing of Climate, United Nations, New York, 1990, p. 14. 

Wliich forces have dominated in the recently observed warming of the climate is still an open question. The last landmark report of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPPC) concludes ... 

Water vapor can be a climate warming force when it traps heat, or can cause either climate warming or cooling when it takes the form of clouds, which reflect incoming solar energy away from Earth. 

Ozone is a highly reactive molecule composed of three atoms of oxygen. Ozone concentrations vary by geographical location and by altitude. In addition, ozone exerts a different climate-forcing effect, depending upon altitude. 

It is clear that human action can affect seven of eight of the major gi eenhouse forcings carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, CFCs, aerosols, and water vapor. As studies of solar variation have shown, it is also clear that human action is not the only factor involved in determining the impact of these forcings. There is still substantial uncertainty regarding the actual climate impact of the climate forcings. 

Lean, J., and Rind, U. (1998). "Climate Forcing by Changing Solar Radiation. Joiimaf of Climate 11 3069-3094. 

In evaluating the influence of individual climate controls, we have three major concerns the time frame over which the control operates, the potential magnitude of the control s influence on climate, and whether a strong correlation between some forcing phenomenon and climatic response actually indicates a cause-effect relationship. 

Ocean-Atmosphere Interactions. To determine how the ocean responds to a C02-induced climate forcing, it will be necessary to develop a combined ocean and atmospheric general circulation model. It will take 10-20 years to develop a model with appropriate chemistry and biology to the level of confidence necessary to make valid projections. In the interim, two approaches can be pursued in parallel with this model development. 

Capaldo, K., Corbett, J. Kasibhatla, P., Fischbeck, P., and Pandis, S. N. (1999). Effects of ship emissions on sulphur cycling and radiative climate forcing over the ocean. Nature, 400, 743-746. 

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