Fluid flow thermodynamics

The book is intended for engineers, scientists, seniors at the university level, and graduate students who have a fundamental understanding of the concept of fluid flow, thermodynamics, and heat transfer. The handbook bridges the disciplines of engineering and occupational health and safety (industrial hygiene). The book can be used as a textbook, a scientific reference for researchers, and a fundamental handbook for practitioners in the industrial air technology field. 

Flows are typically considered compressible when the density varies by more than 5 to 10 percent. In practice compressible flows are normally limited to gases, supercritical fluids, and multiphase flows containing gases. Liquid flows are normally considerea incompressible, except for certain calculations involved in hydraulie transient analysis (see following) where compressibility effects are important even for nearly incompressible hquids with extremely small density variations. Textbooks on compressible gas flow include Shapiro Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compre.ssible Fluid Flow, vol. 1 and 11, Ronald Press, New York [1953]) and Zucrow and Hofmann (G .s Dynamics, vol. 1 and 11, Wiley, New York [1976]). 

Shapiro, A.H, (1953). The dynamics and thermodynamics of compressible fluid flow. Ronald Press. New York. 

Shapiro, A. H. The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid Flow, Vols. 1 and TI (Ronald, New-York. 1953 and 1954). 

Sedov LI (1993) Similarity and dimensional methods in mechanics, 10th edn. CRC, Boca Raton Shah RK, London AL (1978) Laminar flow forced convection in duct. Academic, New York Shapiro AK (1953) The dynamics and thermodynamics of compressible fluid flow. Wiley, New York... 

A capillary system is said to be in a steady-state equilibrium position when the capillary forces are equal to the hydrostatic pressure force (Levich 1962). The heating of the capillary walls leads to a disturbance of the equilibrium and to a displacement of the meniscus, causing the liquid-vapor interface location to change as compared to an unheated wall. This process causes pressure differences due to capillarity and the hydrostatic pressures exiting the flow, which in turn causes the meniscus to return to the initial position. In order to realize the above-mentioned process in a continuous manner it is necessary to carry out continual heat transfer from the capillary walls to the liquid. In this case the position of the interface surface is invariable and the fluid flow is stationary. From the thermodynamical point of view the process in a heated capillary is similar to a process in a heat engine, which transforms heat into mechanical energy. 

The above interpretation on the alteration zoning is mainly based on thermodynamics. However, it is necessary to consider the influence of kinetics and fluids flow on... 

Shai, I., 1967, The Mechanism of Nucleate Pool Boiling Heat Transfer to Sodium and the Criterion for Stable Boiling, Ph.D. thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA. (2) Shapiro, A. H., 1953, The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid Flow, Vol. I, Ronald Press, New York. (3)... 

Flail NA. Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow. Englewood Cliffs, NJ Prentice-Flail, 1951. 

The Department of Energy (DOE) Fundamentals Handbooks consist of ten academic subjects, which include Mathematics Classical Physics Thermodynamics, Heat Transfer, and Fluid Flow Instrumentation and Control Electrical Science Material Science Mechanical Science Chemistry Engineering Symbology, Prints, and Drawings and Nuclear Physics and Reactor Theory. The handbooks are provided as an aid to DOE nuclear facility contractors. 

Ikegami, Y. and A. Bejan. On the Thermodynamic Optimization of Power Plants with Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Irrreversibilities. J Solar Energy Engr 120 (2) 139-144 (1998). 

Magnussen, B.F. etal. Kameleon II A Transient, 3-Dimensional Computer Program for Fluid Flow, Heat- and Mass Transfer. NTH/SINTEF. Norwegian Institute of Technology (NTH). Trondheim, Norway Division of Thermodynamics. 

Finite-time thermodynamics is an extension to traditional thermodynamics in order to obtain more realistic limits to the performance of real processes, and to deal with processes or devices with finitetime characteristics. Finite-time thermodynamics is a method for the modeling and optimization of real devices that owe their thermodynamic imperfection to heat transfer, mass transfer, and fluid flow irreversibility. 

All chemical processes regardless of type involve various mechanisms in addition to the desired chemical conversion, such as chemical reactions, thermodynamic, physical, and chemical equilibria, heat transfer, and mass transfer, which are not independent from one another, thus making it difficult to study their interactions. For example, transfer phenomena essentially depend on fluid flow. In other words, the scale or size of the equipment in which the process takes place has a different effect depending on the mechanism concerned. Extrapolation using geometric similarity can be proved extremely useful in determining the effect of size on a number of characteristic magnitudes of the system. This is shown in Table 6.2. 

The force acting on any differential segment of a surface can be represented as a vector. The orientation of the surface itself can be defined by an outward-normal unit vector, called n. This force vector, indeed any vector, has direction and magnitude, which can be resolved into components in various ways. Normally the components are taken to align with coordinate directions. The force vector itself, of course, is independent of the particular representation. In fluid flow the force on a surface is caused by the compressive (or expansive) and shearing actions of the fluid as it flows. Thermodynamic pressure also acts to exert force on a surface. By definition, stress is a force per unit area. On any surface where a force acts, a stress vector can also be defined. Like the force the stress vector can be represented by components in various ways. 

Overall our objective is to cast the conservation equations in the form of partial differential equations in an Eulerian framework with the spatial coordinates and time as the independent variables. The approach combines the notions of conservation laws on systems with the behavior of control volumes fixed in space, through which fluid flows. For a system, meaning an identified mass of fluid, one can apply well-known conservation laws. Examples are conservation of mass, momentum (F = ma), and energy (first law of thermodynamics). As a practical matter, however, it is impossible to keep track of all the systems that represent the flow and interaction of countless packets of fluid. Fortunately, as discussed in Section 2.3, it is possible to use a construct called the substantial derivative that quantitatively relates conservation laws on systems to fixed control volumes. 

The dynamics of the incompressible fluid flow depend on small changes in the pressure through the flowfield. These changes are negligible compared to the absolute value of the thermodynamic pressure. The reference value can then be taken as some pressure at a fixed point and time in the flow. Changes in pressure result from fluid dynamic effects and an appropriate pressure scale is where Vmax is a measure of the maximum velocity in... 

The goal here is to provide a systematic, if streamlined, derivation of the quantities of interest using statistical thermodynamics. These concepts are outside the range of topics usually considered in mechanical engineering or chemical engineering treatments of fluid flow. However, the results are essential for understanding and estimating the thermodynamic properties that are needed. 

Fluid flow rarely follows ihe commonly accepted idea of streamlines, since the velocities necessary for viscous flow of this nature are almost always lower than those found expedient to employ, Most flows are turbulent in nature. They become turbulent at a definite velocity, the value of which was studied by Reynolds and this value is incorporated in the well-known Reynolds Number. A general thermodynamic equation of energy of a fluid under flow conditions would be as follows ... 

Like CVD units, plasma etching and deposition systems are simply chemical reactors. Therefore, flow rates and flow patterns of reactant vapors, along with substrate or film temperature, must be precisely controlled to achieve uniform etching and deposition. The prediction of etch and deposition rates and uniformity require a detailed understanding of thermodynamics, kinetics, fluid flow, and mass-transport phenomena for the appropriate reactions and reactor designs. 

The above suite of hydrate sensing tools (thermodynamics, geothermal gradients, kinetics, BSRs, lithology and fluid flow, logging and coring tools, and subsea tools) has enabled an assessment of where hydrates may exist worldwide. On the basis of the data provided by these tools, hydrate formation models such as that of Klauda and Sandler (2005) enable our prediction of hydrate formation sites in nature—notably the a priori prediction of 68 of the 71 sites at which hydrates have been indicated. 

Electroosmosis is the bulk fluid flow that occurs when a voltage gradient is imposed across a charged membrane. Transport by convection allows the delivery and extraction of neutral and zwitterionic compounds and plays a major role in the movement of large, poorly mobile cations. Electroosmosis is an electrokinetic phenomenon, which may be described by nonequilibrium thermodynamics [24] ... 

The head flow meter actually measures volume flow rate rather than mass flow rate. Mass flow rate is easily calculated or computed from volumetric flow rate by knowing or sensing temperature and/or pressure. Temperature and pressure affect the density of the fluid and, therefore, the mass of fluid flowing past a certain point. If the volumetric flow rate signal is compensated for changes in temperature and/or pressure, a true mass flow rate signal can be obtained. In Thermodynamics it is described that temperature and density are inversely proportional, while pressure and density are directly proportional. To show the relationship between temperature or pressure, the mass flow rate equation is often written as either Equation 4-1 or 4-2. 

The engineering science of transport phenomena as formulated by Bird, Stewart, and Lightfoot (1) deals with the transfer of momentum, energy, and mass, and provides the tools for solving problems involving fluid flow, heat transfer, and diffusion. It is founded on the great principles of conservation of mass, momentum (Newton s second law), and energy (the first law of thermodynamics).1 These conservation principles can be expressed in mathematical equations in either macroscopic form or microscopic form. 

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