Falsification of results

The current good manufacturing practices (GMP) state that Laboratory records shall include complete data derived from all tests necessary to assure compliance with established specifications and standards [5]. This includes all electronic and hard copies of raw data, laboratory notebooks, and/or worksheets and reports. Additionally, the regulations require that records shall be readily available for authorized inspection [6]. Consequently, the organization must have a well-defined audit trail for the generation, storage, and retrieval of reports and raw data. It must also be shown that there is adequate document management and security of all raw data and reports in terms of both disaster recovery and prevention of falsification of results. 

There are many ways in which scientific misconduct can occur. An example that often gets publicized by the press is scientific misconduct pertaining to the falsification of results, namely publication of fictitious or altered results claimed... 

Until now, only a few chiroptical analyses have been performed with liquid crystal phases. This has again its origin in the experimental problems of CD measurements with anisotropic phases. Besides all those problems that appears in context with ORD and CD measurements of crystals with low symmetry (see section on HAUP method) one has to overcome the falsification of results by the intense scattering of the liquid crystal phases. To some extend this scattering can be subdued by measuring thin films with a thickness in the order of micrometers. 

A falsification of the gas composition resulting from adsorption and condensation can be avoided by heating the pressure converter and the capillary. 

The influence of the sensitivity of the assessors on AEDA has been studied [11], with the result that the differences in the FD factors determined by a group of six panellists amount to not more than two dilution steps (e.g. 64 and 256), implying that the key odorants in a given extract will undoubtedly be detected. However, to avoid falsification of the result by anosmia, AEDA of a sample should be independently performed by at least two assessors. As detailed in [6], odour threshold values of odorants can be determined by AEDA using a sensory internal standard, e.g. ( )-2-decenal. However, as shown in Table 16.6 these odour threshold values may vary by several orders of magnitude [8] owing to different properties of the stationary phases. Consequently, such effects will also influence the results of dilution experiments. Indeed, different FD factors were determined for 2-methyl-3-furanthiol on the stationary phases SE-54 and FFAP 2 and 2 , respectively. In contrast, 5-ethyl-3-hydroxy-4-methyl-2(5H)-furanone showed higher FD factors on FFAP than on SE-54 2 and 2, respectively. Consequently, FD factors should be determined on suitable GC capillaries [8]. However, the best method to overcome the limitations of GC-O and the dilution experiment is a sensory study of aroma models (Sect. 16.6.3). 

Falsification the deliberate distortion or omission of undesired data/results, including the dishonest misinterpretation of results... 

Changes of viscosity or temperature result in a falsification of the signal. 

The use of parsimony thus results in three separate yet closely inter-related issues (1) the general nature of parsimony and its status in Popper s philosophy of science, (2) the role that parsimony and ensuing ad hoc auxiliary hypotheses of homoplasy play in safeguarding the (logically subordinated) hierarchy from failing as it is applied to the world of experience, and (3) the role of parsimony in the putative falsification of alternative hierarchies that stand for alternative hypotheses of phylogenetic relationships. This section will deal with the first two of these issues the third will be dealt with in the next section. 

The potential across the probe orifice may vary in such a way that the probe functions as an electrostatic lens. The falsification of the sample is produced by the lens deflecting the ions that diffuse to the lens region away from the orifice. Under such conditions, nearly all the observed ions are formed in the lens. The collection of ions almost exclusively from a region near the walls produces a short reaction time, with the result that the variation of primary and secondary ions with pressure resembles that obtained using mass spectrometer ion sources as reactors. Figure 4 gives the variation in concentration of the ions in reactions (21) and (22) below with pressure. 

Even under normal ambient pressure relatively high shear rates occur at the wall of capillary viscosimeters (especially for small capillary diameters and low viscosity liquids), that can lead to a falsification of the results for so-called non-Newtonian liquids (see later in this monograph). In Tables 3.1 and 3.2 the maximum occurring shear rates for the admissible minimal running times tniin of the capillary are given for the standard Ubbelohde capillary viscosimeter (ISO 3105) and the Micro Ubbelohde capillary viscosimeter (DIN 51562). 

For the determination of trace metals in biological materials, in addition to Good Laboratory Practice further particularities have to be respected because the metal concentration in the matrix is extremely low. The most important disturbances are caused by contamination. The falsification of the results can be so enormous that these become nonsensical. Sources of contamination include the utensils used in sample preparation, all equipment having contact with the samples in the analytical procedure, water, reagents, and components in the environment. Because of the low metal content in the samples, instability of the solutions and matrix effects play an important role. Therefore standards and reference materials as well as the analytical procedure have to meet extremely high requirements [35,36]. 

Willful, No Death Willful, Repeat Violations Willful, Death Results Willful, Death Result, Second Violation Failure to Correct a Cited Violation Failure to Post Official Documents Falsification of Documents... 

Like any analytical procedure, trace analysis is subject to sources of error that can lead to systematic and random falsification of the observed values or test results. The reliability of results is therefore determined by the accuracy and precision. Measures of the precision are repeatability and reproducibility. 

This method has the advantages that a small specimen can be used, operation is simple, and there is only slight falsification of the intensities due to nonstatistical di.stribution of crystallite orientations in the specimen. Disadvantages of the method are that exposure times are quite long (up to and beyond 12 h) and interpretation of measurements is inconvenient, especially when there are many specimens, because the results are not in digital form. 

In the deductive safety analysis all possible variances and consequently the entire specifiable space should be analyzed. In the inductive safety analysis the specified elements are considered at the respective horizontal abstraction level and the possible error influences or impacts are evaluated. As a result a systematic falsification of the specified space could lead to completeness regarding possible error behavior. Influences and combinations, which the developer cannot imagine or not systematically evaluate, are also not verifiable. The characteristics of the product should be ensured at the end of such horizontal development activities after their verification. 

Willful, death results, second violation Failure to correct a cited violation Failure to post official documents Falsification of documents Assaulting a compliance officer... 

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