Extreme measurement

The mean is the most common estimator of central tendency. It is not considered a robust estimator, however, because extreme measurements, those much larger or smaller than the remainder of the data, strongly influence the mean s value. For example, mistakenly recording the mass of the fourth penny as 31.07 g instead of 3.107 g, changes the mean from 3.117 g to 7.112 g ... 

The type of emulsion (o/w or w/o) is deterrnined by the volume ratio of the two Hquids provided the ratio is sufficiently high. For example, with 5% water and 95% oil (an o/w phase ratio of 19), the emulsion will become w/o unless extreme measures are taken to ensure the formation of an o/w emulsion. 

The direct injection of potent vasodilatory agents such as papaverine or isosor-bide dinitrate, into the ventricles of the heart reverses the action of palytoxin in approximately one-half of the animals. These extreme measures are required because palytoxin kills quickly. Antidotes injected into the venous circulation were not able to reach the heart because the stagnation of venous blood occurs so rapidly that antidotes are simply pooled on the venous side of the circulation and never reach the heart. In these studies isosorbide dinitrate appeared to be approximately twice as effective as papaverine in reversing the toxic effects of palytoxin. 

Many types of component are produced by this method with little difficulty, but, unless very extreme measures of mould design are employed, some components of an intricate nature defy moulding by compression techniques. The reasons are usually the difficulty or cost of preparing a suitable blank shape, the impossibility of ensuring flow of the required amount of rubber into the cavity, or the inability to retain loose metal inserts for bonding in their correct positions. 

Mars rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, could deposit Earth bacteria on the Martian surface, which fortuitously could find an environment in which to colonise. One possible false alarm for Martian life exploration is that evidence is found on the Martian surface of life on Earth. Extreme measures have been taken with the NASA spacecraft to use exposure to the UV radiation from the Sun to sterilise the spacecraft, rotating the various surfaces to face a prolonged exposure, but none of this could guarantee a sterile spacecraft. 

A rather extreme measure, perhaps, but worth it in the long run. 

Digestion Techniques For nonvascularized or low-water-content tissues such as bone, cartilage, or hair, a mechanical technique may do little to disrupt cellular structure and extract analytes. Extreme measures such as digestion with strong acid (i.e., 12 N HC1) are routinely used for DNA or nucleic acids, which can tolerate the harsh conditions. Alternatively, certain enzymes can be used to digest tissue samples. Commercial devices are available which contain digestion bombs fabricated from material resistant to corrosive media. 

If it comes out that to reduce random error it is necessary to increase the number of measurements drastically, it is more acceptable to try to find a way to reduce random error by increasing measurement accuracy or by reducing the error mean square of measurement S. This may be achieved by changing the measurement method or using more up-to-date equipment. Knowledge of the error mean square of measurement obtained from its results may be used to discover robust (extreme) measurement values. When a researcher thinks that a measurement has an extreme value, then the following Student s t-criterion value is calculated ... 

The calculated t-criterion value is then compared with the tabular value for the associated degree of freedom and significance level. When the calculated value is above the tabular, it means that the extreme measurement value is a robust error and it should be rejected. 

The precision has been defined in the ISO 5725-1 standard as the closeness of agreement between independent test results obtained under stipulated conditions [28]. Many factors may contribute to the variability of test results obtained with the same method on identical samples, including (but not limited to) the operators), the equipment, the reagents, the RM(s), the environment, the time between measurements, and the laboratories. The maximal variability of test results is explained by the reproducibility (R) of the method. All factors that have influence on the variability of a test method should be taken into consideration when assessing the reproducibility. The repeatability (r) is assessed by keeping all the above-mentioned factors constant (e.g., same operator, same equipment, same laboratory, short time interval). It is a measure of the minimum variability of a method. The intermediate precision is situated between the two extreme measures of precision repeatability and reproducibility. The terms within-laboratory reproducibility (w), long-term precision, and so on, are often used to demonstrate the intermediate precision of a method. For a correct interpretation of the intermediate precision, the factors that have been taken into account should be known. 

Flammable or explosive volatiles may be driven out by cavitation and ignition. Virtually no sonication devices are explosion-proof and only extreme measures can render them explosion resistant. 

These devices are collectively known as electron-column instruments. They all may be likened to elaborate x-ray tubes, in which the specimen is the target and in which extreme measures have been taken to focus the electron beam from the filament into a very small spot. 

Haber s letter to the minister of finance advocated extreme measures If the government couldn t rejuvenate the economy with a flood of low-interest loans, it should renounce both capitalism and representative democracy, nationalize the country s factories, and put people back to work. It may be foolishness, he wrote, but it was foolishness with the overwhelming force of public sentiment behind it. 

The adaptation of this test for robust statistics (non-parametric tests) requires simply to calculate the ratio F = R1/R2 from the two distributions (the difference between the two extreme measurements) of the two series under comparison. 

Chemisorption differs from physisorption in that it involves the formation of chemical bonds and electron transfer between adsorbate and adsorbent. It is of primary concern with regard to catalysis, and it is only useful as an extreme measure for separation purposes. Removal of chemical warfare agents from breathing air is a prime example. One way to discem between physisorption and chemisorption is by heat effects and the effect of temperature. For example, physisorption is always exothermic, i.e., A// < 0. Furthermore, the adsorbed state is more ordered than the fluid state, so AA < 0. To be thermodynamically feasible, < 0, so AH < TAS. In contrast, endothermic adsorption is possible for dissociative chemisorption, even if the entropy of the adsorbate decreases, because the entropy of the adsorbent may increase to more than offset that, e.g., by expanding. 

The most difficult part of psilocybin mushroom cultivation is the observance of the rules of pure culture technique. These are the sanitary code of mushroom cultivation. There are usually many varieties of bacteria and fungal spores in our environment floating in the air, clinging to our hands and clothing, issuing from our mouths with every exhalation. Extreme measures must therefore be taken to keep these out of our mycelial cultures, which they would rapidly overrun. The following points should be diligently observed. Work in a clean, uncluttered, dust free room. Immediately before work wash the work table and spray the room with disinfectants. Scrub arms, hands, and nails with disinfectant soap. 

Mercury is a complete taboo, especially at the end of the synthesis where extreme measures have to be taken to ensure its absence in the final drug product. 

Radiation. The external radiation hazard from uranium is caused chiefly by beta radiation and is significant only if the uranium surface to which people are exposed is large. The problem presents only minor restraints to the designer, localized shielding normally proving adequate without the extreme measures necessary in fission-product-handling plants. 

---