Explosives historical

Lewis, D. J. 1980. Unconfined vapor cloud explosions—Historical perspective and predictive method based on incident records. Prog. Energy Comb. Sci., 1980. 6 151-165. 

Typical events that are considered are fire, explosion, ship collision, and the failure of pressurized storage vessels for which historical data established the failure frequencies. Assessment of consequences was based partly on conservative treatment of past experience. For example ilic assessment of the number of casualties from the release of a toxic material was based on past histoiy conditioned by knowledge of the toxicology and the prevailing weather conditions. An altemati. e used fault trees to estimate probabilities and identify the consequences. Credit is taken in this process for preventative measures in design, operation, and maintenance procedures. Historical data provide reliability expected from plant components and humans. 

Historically, this phenomenon was referred to as unconfined vapor cloud explosion, but, in general, the term unconfined is a misnomer. It is more accurate to call this type of explosion simply a vapor cloud explosion. ... 

Experiments in tubes are not directly applicable to vapor cloud explosions. An overview of research in tubes is, however, included for historical reasons. An understanding of flame-acceleration mechanisms evolved from these experiments because this mechanism is very effective in tubes. 

Cause-consequence analysis serx es to characterize tlie physical effects resulting from a specific incident and the impact of these physical effects on people, the environment, and property. Some consequence models or equations used to estimate tlie potential for damage or injury are as follows Source Models, Dispersion Models, Fire Explosion Models, and Effect Models. Likelihood estimation (frequency estimation), cliaractcrizcs the probability of occurrence for each potential incident considered in tlie analysis. The major tools used for likelihood estimation are as follows Historical Data, Failure sequence modeling techniques, and Expert Judgment. 

See also Electric Power, Generation of Environmental Problems and Energy Use Explosives and Propellants Meitner, Lise Military Energy Use, Historical Aspects of Molecular Energy Nuclear Energy Nuclear Energy, Historical Evolution of the Use of Nuclear Fission Fuel Nuclear Fusion Nuclear Waste. 

Historically, the outbreak of the first World War provided a stimulus for the industrial preparation of large amounts of synthetic phenol, which was needed as a raw material to manufacture the explosive picric acid (2,4,6-trinitrophenol). Today, more than 2 million tons of phenol is manufactured each year in the United States for use in such products as Bakelite resin and adhesives for binding plywood. 

Mac Donald, G. W., Historical Papers on Modern Explosives. Whittaker, London, 1912. SchOck, H. and Sohlman, R., The Life of Alfred Nobel. Heinemann, London, 1929. 

Normal loss prevention practices are to design protection measures for the worst case fire event that can occur at the facility. To interpret this literally would mean that an oil or gas facility is completely on fire or totally destroyed by an explosion. Practical, economical and historical review considerations indicate this rational should be redefined to the Worst Case Credible Event (WCCE) or the as referenced in the insurance industry, the Probable Maximum Loss (PML), that could occur at the facility. 

Historical Survey of Fire and Explosions in the Hydrocarbon Industries... 

Human factors and ergonomics play a key role in the prevention of accidents. Some theories attribute up to 90% of all accidents are caused by human factor features. It is therefore imperative that an examination of human factors and ergonomics be undertaken to prevent fire and explosions at petroleum facilities since historical experience have also shown it is a major contributor either as a primary or underlining cause. 

Historically, ordinary glass windows are not adequate for blast overpressures as low as 0.2 psi (1.4 kPa). Many injuries in explosion accidents result from glass fragments. Therefore, the use of windows should be discouraged. 

---