Experimental Realization

The aim of the experiments was to obtain stationary values for SO2 separation. Initially, the hold-up was sprayed with water to obtain stationary temperatures after cooling the particles and to conserve the used calcium hydroxide during the unsteady start-up phase. At the steady-state temperature the injection was suddenly switched to suspension. The SC 2-concentration at the outlet then decreased. The suspension consisted of lime hydrate (DIN 1060-CL90, DIN EN 12518) and water. The suspension injection had to be held constant until the SC 2-concentration was constant. After achieving steady state the injection was stopped, and this caused an increase in SC 2-concentration at the outlet up to the initial value. The same procedure was started after a few minutes in order to obtain a new measuring point at a higher suspension injection rate. 

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Peek K, Stryer L, Glazer A N and Mathies R A 1989 Single-moleeule fluoresoenoe deteotion autoeorrelation eriterion and experimental realization with phyooerythrin Proc. Natl Acad. Sc/. USA 86 4087-91... 

Suppose we have a physical system with small rigid particles immersed in an atomic solvent. We assume that the densities of the solvent and the colloid material are roughly equal. Then the particles will not settle to the bottom of their container due to gravity. As theorists, we have to model the interactions present in the system. The obvious interaction is the excluded-volume effect caused by the finite volume of the particles. Experimental realizations are suspensions of sterically stabilized PMMA particles, (Fig. 4). Formally, the interaction potential can be written as... 

The dimensionahty of a system is one of its major features. Despite the fact that our surrounding space is three-dimensional, one can prepare situations that lead to an effective lowered dimension. A typical example regarding colloids is the surface between the solvent and air. One can prepare the particles to be trapped at that interface, so that they float on top of the solvent, building up a two-dimensional (2d) system. Another realization is strong confinement between parallel plates that leads to an effective 2d system. Concerning simulations, it is very convenient to simulate 2d systems, as one has fewer degrees of freedom to deal with e.g., plotting snapshots is easier in 2d than it is in 3d. So, besides their experimental realizations, 2d systems are also important from a conceptual point of view. 

The experimental realization of the optimal initial states is however a completely uncharted area at this time. In an earlier paper (17), we have presented the formulae to obtain field parameters required to achieve these field optimized initial states and the optimal control (30) approach may also be easily and profitably employed to attain this FOIST comprising of only three... 

Of course, the chemistry of zirconium cluster phases has been well described and reviewed in the literature [1-4]. Apart from a very few examples, mostly in the binary halides, almost all reduced zirconium halides contain octahedra of zirconium atoms centred on an interstitial atom Z. Several possible and experimentally realized Z include H, Be-N, K, Al-P, and the transition metals Mn-Ni. All these compounds have the general formula Ax"[(Zr6Z)Xi2X[J], with a " = alkali or alkaline earth metal cation, X=C1 Br or I, X =inner edge-bridging halide [5], X =outer exo-bonded halide, and 0[Pg.61]

The emersed electrode, in principle, may be treated as the experimental realization of a single electrode. However, it is doubtful whether its liquid layer has the same bulk properties. This is probably the main reason for the different results of E°H(abs) found for emersed electrodes, e.g., -4.85 V.83 Samec et al. have found that emersion of electrodes in a nitrogen atmosphere decreases the Volta potential and therefore the absolute electrode potential by ca. 0.32 V relative to the value in solution. They have attributed this mainly to the reorientation of the water molecules at the free surface. 

Often, it will be found that currents for a given reaction cannot be measured at all metals at the same value of potential. At some metals the currents would be too low for a reliable, sufficiently accurate determination at others they might be too high for a satisfactory experimental realization. A comparison will then be possible only after an extrapolation of data obtained in a different region of potentials, to the value of selected for comparison. This extrapolation may not be sufficiently reliable where the Tafel section of the polarization curve is too short or indistinct. 

Elson, E. L. and Magde, D. (1974) Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. 1. Conceptual basis and theory. Biopolymers, 13, 1-27 Elson, E. L. and Webb, W. W. (1974) Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. 11. An experimental realization. Biopolymers, 13, 29-61. 

Tien, T. H. Ottova, A. L., The lipid bilayer concept and its experimental realization From soap bubbles, kitchen sink, to bilayer lipid membranes, J. Membr. Sci. 189,83-117 (2001). 

It was this background which around 1986 made us set up a synthetic project aimed towards an experimental realization of (diphosphinomethane)Pt(O) intermediates with Pt(0) forced into four-membered Pt-P-C-P chelate rings. 

Single atomic ions confined in radio frequency traps and cooled by laser beams (Figure 7.4a) formed the basis for the first proposal of a CNOT quantum gate with an explicit physical system [14]. The first experimental realization of a CNOT quantum gate was in fact demonstrated on a system inspired by this scheme [37]. In this proposal, two internal electronic states of alkaline-earth or transition metal ions (e.g. Ba2+ or Yb3+) define the qubit basis. These states have excellent coherence properties, with T2 and T2 in the range of seconds [15]. Each qubit can be... 

The experimental realization of a Carnot cycle to measure the temperature T is unusual. The coincidence of the thermodynamic temperature T with the temperature read by a gas thermometer, for example, allows the use of such thermometer to know T. As we shall see, also other laws of physics relating T with physical parameters other than heat can be used to get an absolute measure of T. 

The advantages of this thermometer are the high resolution (about 1 xK), repeatability (a few ppm), the zero power dissipation and the insensitivity to radio frequency (RF) fields. The experimental realization is however quite complicated. 

These considerations can be extended to the full 3-D system where scarring is once again a relevant feature (R.V. Jensen, et.al., 1993 F. Benvenuto, et.al., 1994). For those concerned by the large field strengths used in the illustrative cases, it should be noted that these results can be scaled to other frequency regimes and also to excited state initial conditions, where an experimental realization is more likely (R.R. Jones, et.al., 1991). However, our simple example is sufficient to... 

Thus we have treated the chaotic dynamics of the quarkonium in a time periodic field. Using the Chirikov s resonance overlap criterion we obtain estimates for the critical value of the external field strength at which chaotization of the quarkonium motion will occur. The experimental realization of the quarkonium motion under time periodic perturbation could be performed in several cases in laser driven mesons and in quarkonia in the hadronic or quark-gluon matter. 

Direct Pumped OFRR Lasers 19.3.1 Experimental Realization... 

Usually, mainly Doppler broadening determines the gain profile of a particular laser transition. Indeed, due to the different configurations achievable with gas lasers (namely, a large cavity length), the laser line can be narrower than the Doppler linewidth. Different experimental realizations of single-mode lasers are detailed elsewhere (Demtroder, 2(X)3). 

These nonlinear phenomena, long known theoretically but only experimentally realizable with lasers as light sources, are based on the fact that the polarization of a medium, induced by a high-intensity electromagnetic field, is no longer proportional to the electric field vector C, but contains nonlinear contributions ... 

Much of the success in the use of ion-molecule reactions to study SIKIE stems from the relative ease with which the theoretically identified requirement of there being identical reactants in different electronic states, or at least one of the reactants being in a degenerate electronic state, can be experimentally realized. Thus, it is natural to consider possible future directions in which ion-molecule studies might extend the current understanding of SIKIE. Presently, all known systems exhibiting... 

The conditions where the bimolecular reaction path predominates are low temperature and high olefin concentration. Although both mono- and bimolecular limiting conditions can be experimentally realized to a good approximation, experiments are often carried out under conditions were both mechanisms contribute to product formation and the kinetics is complex. For example, kinetic evaluation of hexane cracking at 370°C and 150 torr hexane pressure shows that initially the reaction is slow and then accelerates (Fig. 4). 

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