Essential deterrent effect

Abeywickrama, K., Paranagama, P., Adhikari, C. and Bandara, P. (2003) Deterrent effects of some Sri Lankan essential oils on oviposition and progeny production of the cowpea bruchid Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) (Coleoptera Bruchidae). Journal of Food, Agriculture and Environment 1 (2), 254-257. 

In this context, one needs to recall the objectives of the multilateral verification system. Traditionally, two aspects were emphasized confidence-building and deterrence of treaty violation. In the CWC case, confidence-building relates to the confirmation (a) that the declared CW stockpiles and production capabilities are actually being destroyed, and (b) that chemical activities in those facilities inspected under Article VI are legitimate. The deterrence effect of the CWC verification system relies essentially on two interconnected factors the probability that an Article VI inspection can actually detect a violation (and, relatedly, that the inspection system is optimized in such a way that it induces compliance and maximizes the selection of relevant facilities ), and the confidence of States Parties in the OPCW s ability to conduct an effective and conclusive challenge inspection should it be requested to do so. 

It is important to mention here that by joining WTO, India is expected to receive Most Favored Nations Treatment from all other member countries and therefore there would neither be any special need to enter into the bilateral collaborations with any member country for international trade nor any possibility of a member country imposing special sanctions to destabilize India s international trade. It is envisaged that conventional biotech industries would continue to grow well in India and WTO will have essentially no deterrent effect on this process. It is, however, feared that health care products produced by the use of efficient microbial processes, genetic recombination, and hybridoma technology will be very expensive in India after the enactment of WTO. 

Additional research from our laboratory shows that several essential oils possess antifeedant and oviposition deterrent effects. In particular, thymol, the major constituent of thyme oil, has been shown to be a deterrent to the lepidopteran pest species Plutdla icylostella and Pseudaletia unipuncta. It should be noted that larvae experienced with thymol showed reduced deterrence, suggesting that repeated application of feeding deterrent cherrticals in the field could limit their effectiveness... 

Returning to Eq. 9, we show in Fig. 4 the values of a that provide resistance stasis, as a function of the duration of the seedbank, for f0// = 0.2 (Fig. 4A) and for values of f0 that are so small compared to unity (/<,// <. 05) that /off essentially has no effect (Fig. 4B). Three possible rotation strategies are examined. We see that there can be cases where there is no enrichment at all for resistance. If the effective kill of 2,4-D in wheat is only 50-60% due to late weed germination, then under low fitness and a 1 1 enrichment there is no enrichment (Fig. 4). Stasis can even be obtained with selection pressures above 90% if there is a 2 or more year interval between the treatments with the herbicide. Stasis is impossible with very high selection pressure herbicides in usual rotational sequences. Long duration in the seed bank is actually a deterrent to stasis, as resistant seeds act as a buffer for longer periods (Fig. 4). 

Essential oils demonstrate a wide range of bioactivities from direct toxicity to insects, microorganisms and plants, to oviposition and feeding deterrence as well as repellence and attraction. How these effects are mediated is still being... 

Ultimately the aim is to spare Europe or, ideally, anywhere else from the effects of chemical warfare. In trying to realise this objective disarmament and deterrence have been pursued, in various forms, and complemented by the maintenance of anti-chemical defences. Neither approach can now be set aside without adverse political repercussions nor are they necessarily contradictory (deterrence will remain necessary until a Convention can be agreed, and throughout the ten year period of the Convention). Their importance is underlined by the possibility of chemical warfare recurring. Although chemical weapons have only been used fitfully over the past seventy years, and have not won many battles (comparatively few weapons ever have in and of themselves), they could be employed effectively with other forms of weaponry, especially against ill-prepared and ill-equipped troops or troops heavily dependent upon civilian support. So long as the threat persists, the maintenance of a credible deterrent and extensive anti-chemical defences will be essential. 

CWAs are manufactured and stored by government facilities for basically two reasons. Stored CWAs serve as an effective deterrent to first use of CWAs by others. Secondly, manufacture of these agents permits necessary research of agent characteristics, and provides a means for research of detection techniques and antidote developments. Early detection and warning of even minute amounts of CWAs and/or TICs in the air are essential to minimize casualties. 

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