Erythrocytes potassium

Potassium is primarily an intracellular ion and, consequently, decreases in whole-body potassium may not be detected by plasma measurements (Muylle et al 1984). Although erythrocyte potassium content has been used to estimate whole-body potassium (Muylle et al 1984), its accuracy has not been validated. Moreover, the extracellular potassium concentration (reflected in the plasma) is critical for neuromuscular transmission and is, therefore, more relevant to clinical signs than whole-body potassium stores (Rose 1994). The intervention level for treatment of hypokalemia has not been established. In postoperative colic and proximal enteritis, where the prevention of ileus is a primary goal, it may be prudent to supplement if the plasma potassium concentration falls to <3.5mEq/l. In other situations, especially those being fed enterally, it may not be necessary to treat if the plasma potassium concentration is >3.0mEq/l. 

Other Systemic Effects. Workers exposed for less than 5 years to TWA concentrations of 4.8-8 ppm had significantly elevated plasma sodium and chloride ions and decreased erythrocyte potassium and calcium (Pines 1982). However, the large variance in the electrolyte measurements among workers, the concomitant exposure to other chemicals, the fluctuating exposure concentrations, and the lack of a dose response for blood electrolyte alterations limit the value of this study. 

Other Systemic Effects. Workers occupationally exposed to carbon disulfide exhibited elevated plasma sodium and chloride levels and decreased erythrocyte potassium and calcium levels (Pines 1982). In animals, increased adrenal weight, hyperplasia of adrenal cortex, and mild hemosiderosis of the spleen have been observed (Cohen et al. 1959). However, the value of these studies is limited by confounding factors, lack of dose-response relationships, and limitations in study design. 

Maier WE, Costa LG. 1990. Sodium, potassium-ATPase in rat brain and erythrocytes as a possible target and marker, respectively, for neurotoxicity studies with chlordecone, organotins and mercury compounds. Toxicol Lett 51 175-188. 

Erythrocyte suspension Sample purged absorption of hydrogen cyanide in sodium hydroxide conversion of thiocyanate to cyanide by potassium permanganate oxidation Spectrophotometry (thiocyanate- cyanide determination) No data 93-97 McMillan and Svoboda 1982... 

It has been reported4 that cholinesterase inhibitors (such as di-isopropyl phosphorofluoridate) increase the permeability of squid giant axons towards sodium and potassium. There is also an indication that the erythrocyte requires, among other factors, an adequate acetylcholine-cholinesterase system to prevent a gain of sodium or a loss of potassium.5 The conclusion that permeability is dependent on cholinesterase activity, however, seems to be contested by Strickland and Thompson.6... 

Caldwell KK, Harris RA. 1985. Effects of anesthetic and anticonvulsant dmgs on calcium-dependent efflux of potassium from human erythrocytes. Eur J Pharmacol 107 119-125. 

Nasrallah HA, Varney N, Coffman JA, et al Opiate antagonism fails to reverse post-ECT cognitive deficits. J Clin Psychiatry 47 555-556, 1986 Nasrallah HA, Coffman JA, Olson SC Structural brain-imaging findings in affective disorders an overview. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1 21-26, 1989 Naylor GJ, Smith AHW Defective genetic control of sodium-pump density in manic depressive psychosis. Psychol Med 11 257-263, 1981 Naylor GJ, McNamee HB, Moody JP Erythrocyte sodium and potassium in depressive illness. J Psychosom Res 14 173-177, 1970 Naylor GJ, McNamee HB, Moody JP Changes in erythrocyte sodium and potassium on recovery from depressive illness. Br J Psychiatry 118 219-223, 1971 Naylor GJ, Dick DAT, Dick EG, et al Lithium therapy and erythrocyte membrane cation carrier. Psychopharmacologia 37 81-86, 1974 Naylor GJ, Smith AHW, Dick EG, et al Erythrocyte membrane cation carrier in manic-depressive psychosis. Psychol Med 10 521-525, 1980... 

Olehy DA, Schmitt RA, Bethard WF. 1966. Neutron activation analysis of magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, manganese, cobalt, copper, zinc, sodium, and potassium in human erythrocytes and plasma. J Nucl Med 6 917-927. 

Monti, M., Hedner, P Ikomi-Kumm, J., Valdemarsson, S. (1987). Erythrocyte thermogenesis in hyperthyroid patients Microcalorimetric investigation of sodium/potassium pump and cell metabolism. Metabolism 36, 155-159. 

No increased incidence of micronuclei in polychromatic erythrocytes was observed in mice given single gavage doses of potassium chromate at 86 mg chromium(VI)/kg (Shindo et al. 1989) or in mice exposed to potassium chromate via drinking water at 1-20 ppm for 48 hours or to bolus doses up to 4 pg/kg for 2 days (Mirsalis et al. 1996). Similarly in rats, no unscheduled DNA synthesis in hepatocytes was found. 

Information regarding liver effects in animals after dermal exposure to chromium or its compounds is limited. A single application of 0.5% potassium dichromate (0.175% chromium(VI)) to the shaved skin of rats resulted in increased levels of serotonin in the liver, decreased activities of acetylcholinesterase and cholinesterase in the plasma and erythrocytes, increased levels of acetylcholine in the blood, and increased glycoprotein hexose in the serum. These effects may indicate alterations in carbohydrate metabolism (Merkur eva et al. 1982). 

The findings of toxic effects in the heart, stomach, blood, muscles, and kidneys of humans who were dermally exposed to chromium compounds is suggestive of distribution to these organs (see Section 2.2.3.2). Fourteen days after a salve containing potassium chromate(VI) was applied to the skin of an individual to treat scabies, appreciable amounts of chromium were found in the blood (2-5 mg/100 mL), urine (8 mg/L), feces (0.61 mg/100 g), and stomach contents (0.63 mg/100 mL) (Brieger 1920). The preexisting condition of scabies or the necrosis caused by the potassium chromate could have facilitated its absorption. A transient increase in the levels of total chromium in erythrocytes and plasma was observed in subjects immersed in a tank of chlorinated water containing potassium dichromate(VI) (Corbett et al. 1997). 

New polychromatic erythrocytes Micronuclei + LeCurieux et al. 1992 (VI) Potassium chromate... 

PolyPs and PHB have been found to be associated with ion-conducting proteins such as the human erythrocyte Ca2+-ATPase pump (Reush et al, 1997) and the Streptomyces lividans potassium channel (Reusch, 1999b). Some enzymes of PolyP metabolism, such as polyphosphate glucokinase (Phillips et al, 1999) and yeast high-molecular-weight exopolyphosphatase (Andreeva et al, 2001, 2004), can contain tightly bound PolyP. 

In 1979, Jette E. Kristiansen of Copenhagen, Denmark, performed extensive experiments to elaborate the effect of chlorpromazine on the permeability of the bacterial cell wall [55]. In vitro experiments were carried out with Staphylococcus aureus under the influence of chlorpromazine. Depigmentation and bacteriostatic/bactericidal effects of chlorpromazine on the microorganisms were observed. It has been shown that concentrations of chlorpromazine near the bacteriostatic value, in combination with bacterial haemolysins, could alter erythrocyte membranes of horse and rabbit blood in such a way that they become resistant to haemolysis. It was further realized that chlorpromazine in bacteriostatic concentration probably changed the transport of potassium through the bacterial membrane in the same manner as described for mammalian muscle tissue [54],... 

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