Error of zero

Ah/At = 7.4 and A /Ax = 1.8 and isotopic activation energy differences that are within the experimental error of zero. The values of the two A-ratios correspond to a Swain-Schaad exponent of 3.4, not much different from the semiclassical expectation of 3.3. The a-secondary isotope effects are 1.19 (H/T), 1.13 (H/D), and 1.05 (D/T), which are exactly at the limiting semiclassical value of the equilibrium isotope effect. The secondary isotope effects generate a Swain-Schaad exponent of 3.5, again close to the semiclassical expectation. At the same time that the isotope effects are temperature-independent, the kinetic parameter shows... 

The steadystate error is another time-domain specification. It is not a dynamic specification, but it is an important performance criterion. In many loops (but not all) a steadystate error of zero is desired, i.e, the value of the controlled variable should eventually level out at the setpoint. 

Stage 3. The twelve calculated data from Table I are processed by adding normally distributed random errors of zero mean to each variable in turn and then all together. The results are shown on Figures 3 and 4 for Att and A , respectively. The confidence regions also are shown and we observe that 92% and 58% of the calculated differences, respectively, fall within these limits. For 12 data points there is a 95% probability that between 41% and 95% of the calculated values should lie within the confidence limits. This wide range for a small number of data points again... 

All errors can also be divided into two independent classes by the influence on the resulting accuracy of measurement error of zero and error of sensitivity. Let s consider these two classes in details. In the general view, the zirconia sensor function can be represented as follows ... 

If some of the errors given above can be dominated for the real zirconia-based sensors, then the other constituents can be ignored. If only the additive constituent part takes place, then the zirconia gas sensor function assumes y = k x Aq), where the current value of the absolute sensor error, equal to A = Aq, is independent of the value of the measuring parameter. The value of the relative error y= Yq = Aq /jc is inversely proportional to the value of the measuring parameter, the sensor error growths up to 100% at X = Ag, that is, it is impossible to make a measurement in this case. The value of the measuring parameter x, equal to the value of the relative error of zero, is acceptedly called the sensitivity threshold of the sensor. 

Integrated error Since the error (r — c) can be either positive or negative, an integrated error of zero could be obtained in a continuously oscillating Ipop. Integrated error is therefore not, of itself, a measure of stability. 

Quality control elements required by the instrumental analyzer method include analyzer calibration error ( 2 percent of instrument span allowed) verifying the absence of bias introduced by the sampling system (less than 5 percent of span for zero and upscale cah-bration gases) and verification of zero and calibration drift over the test period (less than 3 percent of span of the period of each rim). 

The methodical elaboration is included for estimation of random and systematic errors by using of single factor dispersion analysis. For this aim the set of reference samples is used. X-ray analyses of reference samples are performed with followed calculation of mass parts of components and comparison of results with real chemical compositions. Metrological characteristics of x-ray fluorescence silicate analysis are established both for a-correction method and simplified fundamental parameter method. It is established, that systematic error of simplified FPM is less than a-correction method, if the correction of zero approximation for simplified FPM is used by preliminary established correlation between theoretical and experimental set data. 

Flow Low mass flow indicated. Mass flow error. Transmitter zero shift. Measurement is high. Measurement error. Liquid droplets in gas. Static pressure change in gas. Free water in fluid. Pulsation in flow. Non-standard pipe runs. Install demister upstream heat gas upstream of sensor. Add pressure recording pen. Mount transmitter above taps. Add process pulsation damper. Estimate limits of error. 

Loeate the eompensating error amplifier zero at the loeation of the lowest manifestation of the filter pole or... 

The location of the lower of the two error amplifier zeros (/epi) is placed at the location of the estimated zero of the output capacitor and its ESR. Hence,... 

All three optimizations result in very similar planar structures. The bond lengths are all in fairly good agreement with experiment with the exception of the O-H distance. The bond angle predictions are more erratic some are reasonable while others have errors of several degrees. The dihedral angles are both predicted to be essentially zero in all three cases, consistent with a planar structure. 

Finally, force field methods are zero-dimensional . It is not possible to asses the probable error of a given result within the method. The quality of the result can only be judged by comparison with other calculations on similar types of molecules, for which relevant experimental data exist. 

An examination of some laboratory runs with diluted C150-1-02 catalyst can illustrate this problem. In one run with 304°C at inlet, 314 °C at exit, and 97,297 outlet dry gas space velocity, the following results were obtained after minor corrections for analytical errors. Of the CO present (out of an inlet 2.04 mole % ), 99.9885% disappeared in reaction while the C02 present (from an initial 1.96%) increased by over 30%. Equilibrium carbon oxides for both methanation reactions were essentially zero whereas the equilibrium CO based on the water-gas shift reaction at the exit composition was about one-third the actual CO exit of 0.03 mole %. From these data, activities for the various reactions may be estimated on the basis of various assumptions (see Table XIX for the effect of two different assumptions). 

The application to pipe flow is not strictly valid because u (= fRjp) is constant only in regions close to the wall. However, equation 12.34 appears to give a reasonable approximation to velocity profiles for turbulent flow, except near the pipe axis. The errors in this region can be seen from the fact that on differentiation of equation 12.34 and putting y = r, the velocity gradient on the centre line is 2.5u /r instead of zero. 

A note on good practice Avoid the error of setting the standard entropies of elements equal to zero, as you would for AH° the entropies to use are the absolute values for the given temperature and are zero only at T = 0. 

A delay error shifts the position of zero delay with respect to the overall intensity envelope, resulting in a substantial reduction of overall contrast. The contrast may vanish entirely if the zero delay position coincides with a minimum. Therefore, there is a relation between the allowable delay error max and the spectral bandwidth Aoj of the detected radiation if the amplitude error of the fringe modulation is to remain small, i. e., (5max = A /AA. 

Statistical and algebraic methods, too, can be classed as either rugged or not they are rugged when algorithms are chosen that on repetition of the experiment do not get derailed by the random analytical error inherent in every measurement,i° 433 is, when similar coefficients are found for the mathematical model, and equivalent conclusions are drawn. Obviously, the choice of the fitted model plays a pivotal role. If a model is to be fitted by means of an iterative algorithm, the initial guess for the coefficients should not be too critical. In a simple calculation a combination of numbers and truncation errors might lead to a division by zero and crash the computer. If the data evaluation scheme is such that errors of this type could occur, the validation plan must make provisions to test this aspect. 

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