Entrainment additives

N2 fixation can be quantified by measuring the increase in total N in the euphotic layer during periods when other sources of phytoplankton N (deep-water entrainment, additions from sediments, rivers and coastal point-sources) are insignificant or can be quantified. Using this approach Larsson et al. (2001) estimated that N2 fixation in the Baltic Proper was 180—430 kt N year sufficient to sustain 30—90% of the pelagic net community production during summer. 

To facilitate countercurrent flow of the two phases, without excessive entrainment Additional considerations in selecting contacting equipment are as follows ... 

Salts of hydroxycarboxylic acids and the low molecular weight polysaccharides do not entrain additional air and often result in reduced air content. 

The critical impeller speed for surface aeration (/Vcsa) can be identified using indirect sparging. A simple ki a versus N graph produces a sharp increase in ki a at iVcsA- Direct sparging makes this identification more difficult. Although gas may be entrained, additional gas dispersion does not occur until the impeller speed is increased by about 20% above the initial entrainment speed. Other factors... 

ASTM C 226. 2012. Standard specification for air-entraining additions for use in the manufacture of air-entraining hydraulic cement. West Conshohocken, PA ASTM International. 

Note the dependence of pressure change on circular channel diameter (D), all else being the same. It s to the fourth power That dependence is how one can design an air amplifier with a large diameter venturi and expect only a small pressure change sufficient to entrain additional air relative to an eductor with a small diameter venturi which would produce a substantial pressure change — a partial vacuum upstream. 

Another application of an entrainer addition is for the separation of a close-boiling mixture using heterogeneous azeotropic distillation. One common industrial example is the separation of acetic acid and water with an ester as the entrainer. The reason for adding the... 

C 226 Specification for Air-Entraining Additions for Use in the Manufacture of Air-Entraining Portland Cement ... 

In the first class, azeotropic distillation, the extraneous mass-separating agent is relatively volatile and is known as an entrainer. This entrainer forms either a low-boiling binary azeotrope with one of the keys or, more often, a ternary azeotrope containing both keys. The latter kind of operation is feasible only if condensation of the overhead vapor results in two liquid phases, one of which contains the bulk of one of the key components and the other contains the bulk of the entrainer. A t3q)ical scheme is shown in Fig. 3.10. The mixture (A -I- B) is fed to the column, and relatively pure A is taken from the column bottoms. A ternary azeotrope distilled overhead is condensed and separated into two liquid layers in the decanter. One layer contains a mixture of A -I- entrainer which is returned as reflux. The other layer contains relatively pure B. If the B layer contains a significant amount of entrainer, then this layer may need to be fed to an additional column to separate and recycle the entrainer and produce pure B. 

The unit has virtually the same flow sheet (see Fig. 2) as that of methanol carbonylation to acetic acid (qv). Any water present in the methyl acetate feed is destroyed by recycle anhydride. Water impairs the catalyst. Carbonylation occurs in a sparged reactor, fitted with baffles to diminish entrainment of the catalyst-rich Hquid. Carbon monoxide is introduced at about 15—18 MPa from centrifugal, multistage compressors. Gaseous dimethyl ether from the reactor is recycled with the CO and occasional injections of methyl iodide and methyl acetate may be introduced. Near the end of the life of a catalyst charge, additional rhodium chloride, with or without a ligand, can be put into the system to increase anhydride production based on net noble metal introduced. The reaction is exothermic, thus no heat need be added and surplus heat can be recovered as low pressure steam. 

A fourth mechanism is called sweep flocculation. It is used primarily in very low soflds systems such as raw water clarification. Addition of an inorganic salt produces a metal hydroxide precipitate which entrains fine particles of other suspended soflds as it settles. A variation of this mechanism is sometimes employed for suspensions that do not respond to polymeric flocculants. A soHd material such as clay is deUberately added to the suspension and then flocculated with a high molecular weight polymer. The original suspended matter is entrained in the clay floes formed by the bridging mechanism and is removed with the clay. 

Defoamers. Foam is a common problem in papermaking systems (27). It is caused by surface-active agents which are present in the pulp slurry or in the chemical additives. In addition, partially hydrophobic soHd materials can function as foam stabilizers. Foam can exist as surface foam or as a combination of surface foam and entrained air bubbles. Surface foam usually can be removed by water or steam showers and causes few problems. Entrained air bubbles, however, can slow drainage of the stock and hence reduce machine speed. Another serious effect is the formation of translucent circular spots in the finished sheet caused by permanently entrained air. 

Desalting is a water-washing operation performed at the production field and at the refinery site for additional cmde oil cleanup. If the petroleum from the separators contains water and dirt, water washing can remove much of the water-soluble minerals and entrained soflds. If these cmde oil contaminants are not removed, they can cause operating problems duting refinery processiag, such as equipment plugging and corrosion as well as catalyst deactivation. 

The principle of azeotropic distillation depends on the abiHty of a chemically dissimilar compound to cause one or both components of a mixture to boil at a temperature other than the one expected. Thus, the addition of a nonindigenous component forms an azeotropic mixture with one of the components of the mixture, thereby lowering the boiling point and faciHtating separation by distillation. The separation of components of similar volatiHty may become economical if an entrainer can be found that effectively changes the relative volatiHty. It is also desirable that the entrainer be reasonably cheap, stable, nontoxic, and readily recoverable from the components. In practice, it is probably the ready recoverabiHty that limits the appHcation of extractive and azeotropic distillation. 

Organometallics. Pentachloropyridiae (47) forms Grignard reagent (48) by the entrainment method (eq. 15) (46). Addition of CO2 produces 4-carboxy-2,3,5,6-tetrachloropyridine [19340-26-2]. 

There are two serious problems associated with continuous tar distillation. Coal tar contains two types of components highly corrosive to ferrous metals. The ammonium salts, mainly ammonium chloride, associated with the entrained Hquor remain in the tar after dehydration, tend to dissociate with the production of hydrochloric acid and cause rapid deterioration of any part of the plant in which these vapors and steam are present above 240°C. Condensers on the dehydration column and fractionation columns are also attacked. This form of corrosion is controlled by the addition of alkaU (10% sodium carbonate solution or 40% caustic soda) to the cmde tar in an amount equivalent to the fixed ammonia content. 

Adhesives and Sealants. Most industrial adhesives contain surface active components and additives, and air entrainment during their mechanical appHcation can significantly reduce joint strength. Defoamers are usually formulated into adhesives to protect users against such difficulties. Additional benefits, such as improved uniformity of products, increased throughput and reduced labor costs can also result from the use of defoamers during adhesive appHcation. The footwear and nonwoven fabric industries are extensive users of defoamers in this way. 

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