Energy nuclear power reactors

IAEA, 1998, Nuclear Power Reactors in the World, April 1998 Edition, Reference Data Series No. 2, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna. 

Fissile materials are defined as materials that are fissionable by nentrons with zero kinetic energy. In nuclear engineering, a fissile material is one that is capable of snstaining a chain reaction of nuclear fission Nuclear power reactors are mainly fueled with manium, the heaviest element that occurs in natnre in more than trace qnantities. The principal nuclear energy soiuces are maninm-235, plutonium-239, uranium-233 and thorium. 

Because the isotope uranium-235 is fissionable, meaning that it produces free neutrons that cause other atoms to split, it generates enough free neutrons to make it unstable. When the unstable U-235 reaches a critical mass of a few pounds, it produces a self-sustaining fission chain reaction that results in a rapid explosion with tremendous energy and becomes a nuclear (atomic) bomb. The first nuclear bombs were made of uranium and plutonium. Today, both of these fuels are used in reactors to produce electrical power. Moderators (control rods) in nuclear power reactors absorb some of the neutrons, which prevents the mass... 

Beryllium oxide shows excellent thermal conductivity, resistance to thermal shock, and high electrical resistance. Also, it is unreactive to most chemicals. Because of these properties the compound has several applications. It is used to make refractory crucible materials and precision resistor cores as a reflector in nuclear power reactors in microwave energy windows and as an additive to glass, ceramics and plastics. 

Plutonium is the most important transuranium element. Its two isotopes Pu-238 and Pu-239 have the widest applications among all plutonium isotopes. Plutonium-239 is the fuel for nuclear weapons. The detonation power of 1 kg of plutonium-239 is about 20,000 tons of chemical explosive. The critical mass for its fission is only a few pounds for a solid block depending on the shape of the mass and its proximity to neutron absorbing or reflecting substances. This critical mass is much lower for plutonium in aqueous solution. Also, it is used in nuclear power reactors to generate electricity. The energy output of 1 kg of plutonium is about 22 million kilowatt hours. Plutonium-238 has been used to generate power to run seismic and other lunar surface equipment. It also is used in radionuclide batteries for pacemakers and in various thermoelectric devices. 

Nuclear fission reactors ( nuclear power reactors ) are devices that use controlled neutron-induced fission to generate energy. While a complete description of the design of these devices is beyond the scope of this book, there are certain basic principles related to nuclear reactors that are worth studying and that can be described and understood with a moderate effort. 

A nuclear power reactor gets its energy from neutron-induced fission (atom split when hit by a neutron), usual ly 233 U. The splitting is not symmetrical and different pairs of products result. Determine the missing fission product for the two examples given below. 

Nuclear energy is a long-term energy resource that can serve the United States and the world for centuries. With major uranium supplies in the United States, Canada, and Australia, increased reliance on nuclear fuel supplies adds to U.S. energy security. Nuclear power reactors do not involve any C02 emissions to the atmosphere, nor do they emit any toxic air pollutants such as are emitted by fossil-fueled power... 

A number of artificial radionuclides are produced as a result of activation during nuclear weapons tests, operation of reprocessing plants and reactors in nuclear power stations, and in nuclear studies. Modem radioanalytical techniques have enabled activation products such as Na, Cr, " Mn, Fe, °Co, Ni Zn, °Ag, and " Sb to be detected in the environment [28,29]. Stainless steel containing iron, nickel, and cobalt is an important material in nuclear power reactors and is used to constmct nuclear test devices or their supporting stmctures [30,31]. During neutron activation of the stable isotopes of cobalt, radioactive isotope °Co (J = 5.27 years) is produced. It is a beta emitter and decays into °Ni, with energy niax of... 

Under Article XIV (Entry into force), the Treaty will enter into force 180 days after the 44 States listed in annex 2 to the Treaty have deposited their instruments of ratification with the Secretary-General of the United Nations, but in no case earlier than two years after its opening for signature . This list comprises the States that formally participated in the 1996 session of the conference on Disarmament, and that appear in Table 1 of the December 1995 edition of Nuclear Research Reactors in the World and Table 1 of the April 1996 edition of Nuclear Power Reactors in the World , both compiled by the International Atomic Energy Agency. 

Hatcher, S. R. The Chemical Engineer s Role in Nuclear Power Reactor Design, Development and Operation, Atomic Energy of Canada Limited Report, AECL-3911, 1971, p. 41. 

IAEA, Hydrogen in Water-Cooled Nuclear Power Reactors, International Atomic Energy Agency and Commission of the European Communities, Vienna (1990). 

R D efforts on innovative nuclear power reactor designs were conducted in international cooperation. The Chinese design of an AC-600 reactor which has been accepted by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) as a progressive concept is currently investigated by the Nuclear Power Institute of China [92]. 

The discovery of radioactivity a century ago opened up a new field in science, that of the atomic nucleus, which culminated 40 years later in the discovery of fission, and its practical consequences in the form of nuclear weapons and nuclear power reactors. That remains still die focus of news media as it influences international politics and national energy policies. However, nuclear science has contributed much more to our daily life as it has penetrated into practically every important area, sometimes in a pioneering way sometimes by providing conqiletely new solutions to old problems from the history of the universe and our civilisation to methods of food production and to our health from youth to old age. It is a fascinating field continuously developing. Nuclear chemistry is an important part of this. 

Current nuclear power reactors employ controlled fission to produce energy... 

Design the chlorination unit of the benzene hexachloride plant discussed in Chaps. 3 to 6 to utilize gamma-ray energy from typical spent-fuel elements of nuclear-power reactors and from cesium 137 isolated from fission products. Make a comparative economic study. 

Plutonium has assumed a position of dominant importance among the transuranium elements because of its successful use as an explosive ingredient in nuclear weapons and the place it holds as a key material in the development of industrial use of nuclear power. One kilogram is equivalent to about 22 million-kilowatt hours of heat energy. The complete detonation of a kilogram of plutonium produces an explosion equal to about 20,000 tons of chemical explosive. Its importance depends on the nuclear property of being readily fissionable with neutrons and its availability in quantity. The world s nuclear-power reactors are now producing about 20,000 kg of plutonium a year. By 1982, it was estimated that about 300,000 kg had accumulated. The various nuclear applications of plutonium are well known. Pu has been used in the Apollo lunar missions to power seismic and other equipment on the lunar surface. As with neptunium and uranium, plutonium metal can be prepared by reduction of the trifluoride with alkaline-earth metals. 

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